A GUIDE 



SCIENTIFIC EXAimATION OF SOILS: 



COMPRISING 



SELECT METHODS OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 
AND PHYSICAL INVESTIGATION. 



TRANSLATED EfiOM THE GERMAN OF 

Dr. FELIX WAHNSCHAFFE. 

WITH ADDITIONS BY 

WILLIAM T.^BRANNT, 

EDITOR OF " THE TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK." 



ILLUSTRATED BY TWENTY^U^ENGRAVINGS. 



DEC 12 1B91 






P eFT L A D E L P H I A : 
HENRY CAREY BAIRU & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS. 

810 WALNUT STREET. 

1892. 



\^ 



Copyright by 

HENRY CABEY BAIRD & CO. 

1891. 






Printed at the COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, 

705 Jayne Street, 

Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



PREFACE. 



This translation of Dr. Felix Wahnschafte's 
Anleitung zur wissenschaftliclien Bodenunter- 
sucliung, has been prepared in the belief that 
it will prove of interest to those engaged in 
scientific agriculture and the investigation of 
agricultural problems. 

Some of the methods of analysis described 
are in use in the laboratory of the Royal 
Prussian Geological Institute, whilst others 
have been taken from approved text-books, 
but in many respects modified by Dr. Wahn- 
schafife. Only methods yielding scientifically 
useful results, and of comparatively easy and 
rapid execution, have been selected. 



IV PREFACE. 

The chapter on " The Definition of the 
Soil," being of interest only to German readers, 
has been omitted, and a few trifling changes 
and additions have been made. 

WILLIAM T. BRANNT. 

Philadelphia, December, 1891. 



CONTENTS. 



I. Derivation and Formation of the Soil. 

PAGE 

Various modes of the superficial formation of the earth's 
crust; Forces active in soil-formation; Weathering 17 

Transformation of decomposable minerals contained in 
rocks . . . . . . . . .18 

Process of kaolinization ; Denudation of the soil . 19 

II. Classification of Soils. 

Lorenz von Liburnau's system ; Primitive soils and de- 
rived soils ; Albrecht Thaer's system ; Difficulty of 
drawing sharp limits in the classification of soils . 21 

Importance of the quantitative determination of the 
principal soil-constituents ; Clay the most important 
soil-constituent ....... 22 

Loams ; Definition of the terms light and heavy soils ; 
Sub-soils ; True soils or top-soils . . . .23 

III. The Object op Soil-Analysis. 

Soil-analysis from the geological and agricultural stand- 
points ; Absorption of carbon by the plant . . 24 

Content of water in different parts of plants ; Chemical 
combinations found in plants . . . . .25 

Elements necessary for the nourishment of plants ; Ele- 
ments occasionally found in the plant-ash . . 2G 
1* 



y 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Execution of a soil-analysis which is to satisfy all de- 
mands of agriculture ; Importance of complete exami- 
nations ......... 27 



IV. Preparatory Labors for Soil-Analysis. 

Taking samples from the soil and storing and preparing 
them for analysis ....... 28 

Taking specimens of salty or "alkali" soils; Depth to 
which samples should be taken . . . .29 

Points which should be noted in taking samples . . 30 

Labeling, drying, and storing samples . . .31 

V. Mechanical Soil-Analysis. 

Granulating with the sieve . . . . .31 

Characterization of the mechanical composition of a 
soil ; Preparations for the execution of the mechani- 
cal analysis ........ 32 

Definitions of fine soil and fine earth ; Different opinions 

as to what constitutes fine soil and fine earth . . 33 
Silt-analysis ; Apparatuses used for silt-analysis ; Noe- 
bel's elutriating apparatus . . . . .34 

Products of elutriation obtained with Noebel's appara- 
tus ; Schoene's elutriating apparatus ; Definition of 
velocity of elutriation ...... 36 

Schoene's elutriator ....... 37 

Arrangement for the elutriating process . . .38 
Formula for obtaining the elutriating velocity . . 41 
Formulte for calculating a determined elutriating ve- 
locity 42 

Products of granulation corresponding to elutriating ve- 
locities ......... 44 



CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGE 

Orth's auxiliary cylinder ; Scheme of a table to be used 

for all analyses with Schoene's apparatus . . 45 
Execution of the analysis with Schoene's apparatus . 46 
Apparatus for elutriation with distilled water . . 47 
Products obtained by the elutriating process . . 50 
Scheme for entering the figures obtained by calculating 
the products of granulation and elutriation for the en- 
tire soil ........ 51 

Hilgard's elutriating apparatus . . . . .52 

Precautions to be observed in order to insure correct 

and concordant results ...... 54 

Lowest velocity available ...... 55 

VI. Determination of the Soil-Constituents. 

Determination of the content of calcium carbonate or 
of magnesia carbonate ; Volumetric measurement of 
the carbonic acid . . . . . . .56 

Scheibler's apparatus for the volumetric measurement 
cf the carbonic acid ...... 57 

Table for calculating the carbonic acid for Sclieibler's 
apparatus ........ 60 

Table for calculating the carbonic acid, found with 
Scheibler's apparatus, to calcium carbonate . . 61 

Determination of the carbonic acid by weighing from 
the loss; Mohr's apparatus modified by Laufer and 
Wahnschaffe ........ 62 

Determination of the carbonic acid by direct weighing ; 
R. Finkener's apparatus . . . . .64 

Geissler's potash apparatus . . . . .65 

Determination of the carbonate of calcium and magne- 
sium by boiling with ammonium nitrate . . .67 

Blast-lamp 71 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Determination of the humus substances ; Definition of 

humus; Neutral and acid humus; Definition of peat 72 
Knop's method for the determination of l)umus ; Dr. R. 
Muencke's drying chamber . . . . .73 

Determination of the carbon of the humus substances 

by elementary analysis . . . • . .78 

Combustion furnace ....... 79 

Determination of the loss by ignition . . .81 

Determination of the content of clay . . . .82 

Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube . 83 
Tubular furnace ....... 84 

Separation of the ferric oxide from the alumina ; Deter- 
mination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration with 
potassium permanganate solution . . . .87 

Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution ; 
Purification of iron-ammonium alum or ammonio- 
ferric sulphate ....... 90 

Formula for calculating the effective value of the potas- 
sium permanganate solution ; Calculation of the con- 
tent of clay in the total soil . . . . .92 

Determination of the content of sand ; Petrographic de- 
termination of the coarser admixed parts of the sand 94 
Thoulet and Goldschmidt's specifically very heavy 

fluids . 9o 

Kohrbach's specifically very heavy fluid ; Table of spe- 
cific gravities of various minerals; Determination of 
the content of quartz ; J. Hazard's method . .90 
Determination of the elementary composition of the soil; 

Disintegration with sodium carbonate . . . 99 

Disintejjration with fluoric acid ..... 100 



CONTENTS. IX 

VII. Determination of the Plant-Nourishing 
Substances. 

PAGE 

Determination of the plant-nourishing substances in soil 
extractions ; Extraction of the soil with cold distilled 
water ; Preparation of the aqueous extract of the soil 102 

Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract . 103 

Covered water-bath ; Preparation of a number of weighed 
filters 106 

Determination of the acids in the aqueous extract ; De- 
termination of chlorine . . . . . .108 

Determination of sulphuric acid . . . . .109 

Determination of nitric acid . . . . .110 

Tiemann's modification of Schloesing-Schulze's method 
for the determination of nitric acid . . .111 

Table for finding the tension of the aqueous vapor ; 
W. Wolf's method of determining the nitric acid by 
means of zinc in alkaline solution . . . .116 

Determination of the ammonium chloride as ammonio- 
platinum after the conversion of the nitric acid into 
ammonium chloride . . . . . .117 

Volumetric determination by the Knop- Wagner azome- 
ter of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after 
converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride . 118 

The Knop- Wagner azometer . . . . .119 

Dietrich's table for the absorption of nitrogen in 60 
cubic centimeters developing fluid (50 cubic centi- 
meters of bromine lye and 10 cubic centimeters of 
water) with a specific gravity of the lye of 1.1 and 
such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters cori-espond 
to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, with an evolu- 
tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen . . 122 

Special method in the examination of peat ; Extraction 
of soil with carbonated water . . . . .123 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Precipitation of the phosphoric acid with ammonium 
molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyropliosphate 12G 

Determination of the phosphoric acid as ammonium phos- 
pho-molybdate, according to R. Finkener . .127 

Finkener's drying stand . . . . . .128 

Further treatment of the soil extract prepared with car- 
bonated water . . . . . . .129 

Extraction of the soil with cold concentrated hydrochlo- 
ric acid ; Extraction of the soil with boiling concen- 
trated hydrochloric acid ...... 130 

P^rlenmeyer boiling flask and sand-bath . . .131 

Determination of some important substances for the nour- 
ishment of plants, which can either not or only parti- 
ally be determined in the soil extracts ; Determination 
of the total nitrogen in the soil ; Kjeldahl's method . 133 

Determination of the nitrogen by combustion with soda 
lime ......... 135 

Determination of the ammonia contained in the soil . 137 

Schoesing's modified method for the accurate determina- 
tion of the ammonia in the soil . . . .138 

VIII, Determination of the Substances in 
THE Soil Injurious to the Growth 
OF Plants. -" 

Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the soil . 139 
Determination of common salt in the soil ; Determina- 
tion of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and iron 
disulphide ; Methods used at the Prussian moor ex- 
perimental station at Bremen . . . . .140 
Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by 
ijinition . . . . . . . .1-11 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

Fleischer's method of calculating the sulphuric acid 
present in a form injurious to plants ; Determination 
of the content of sulphur in the soil by disintegration 
with bromine . . . . . . .143 

IX. Determination of Various Properties of 
THE Soil, which are dependent parti- 
ally on Physical and partially on 
Chemical Causes. 

Weight of the soil ; Determination of the specific gravity 144 

Determination of the volume weight ; Apparent specific 
gravity of the soil ; Porosity of the soil . . .145 

Behavior of the soil towards nourishing substances . 146 

Testing the absorbent power of the soil with -^^ or yi^ 
normal solutions ; Salts suitable for these experi- 
ments ; Preparation of the ^^ normal solution ; 
Fesca's method of preparing monocalciura phosphate 147 

Determination of the absorption . . . .148 

Determination of the absorption-coefficient according to 
Knop 149 

Behavior of the soil towards water ; Power of retaining 
moisture in the soil ; By experiments in the labora- 
tory ......... 151 

Definition of the greatest or full capacity for water ; Zinc 
tubes used in determining the power of the soil to re- 
tain water . . . . . . . .152 

A. Mayer's method for determining the power of the 
soil to retain water ; Determination of the water ca- 
pacity of the soil in its natural bed in the open field 154 

Heinrich's modified method ; The evaporating power 
of the soil ; E. WolflP's method of determining the 
evaporating power of the soil ..... 156 



i/ 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The filtrating power of the soil ; E. Wolff's method . 157 

Capillary attraction of the soil ; Apparatus used for the 
purpose 158 

Behavior of the soil towards gases ; The absorbent ca- 
pacity of the soil for aqueous vapor . . . 159 

The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the 
atmospheric air ; "W. Wolf's method . . .160 

F. Schulze's method of determining the absorption-coef- 
ficient of the soil for oxygen ; G. Ammon's summary 
of his experiments ...... IGl 

The ventilating power of the soil ; R. Heinrich's method 
and apparatus used . . . . . . .162 

Behavior of the soil towards heat ; Determination of the 
heat-absorbent power of the soil . . . . 1 63 

On what the heating capacity of a soil is dependent . 164 

The heat-conducting power of the soil; Wollny's de- 
ductions from his experiments . . . .165 

Cohesion and adhesion of the soil ; R. Heinrich's method 
of determining the coherence of the soil in a wet state 166 

R. Heinrich's directions for determining the adhesion of 
moist soils to iron and wood . . , . .167 

X. General Rules for Soil-Analysis. 

Necessity of fixed rules in order to obtain comparable 
results . . . . . . . . .167 

Summary of general rules to be applied to the examina- 
tion of soils . . . . . . . .168 

Index 171 



THE EXAMmATION OF SOILS. 



I. 

DERIVATION AND FOEMATION OF THE SOIL. 

The superficial formation of the earth's crust, which 
serves as the bearer and nourisher of plants, is effected 
either by the loosening and decomposition of the exposed 
rocks, or by the transport of coarse and fine materials 
worn from other rocks, or, finally, by the transforma- 
tion into humus of decayed vegetable remains piled up 
in large masses. 

The forces active in the first-mentioned mode of soil- 
formation are partially of a physical and partially of a 
chemical nature. Their co-operation is called xceathcr- 
ing, and will have to be considered somewhat more 
closely. First of all, it is heat which, by itself as 
well as in conjunction with water, prepares the rock 
for the further disintegrating process. In consequence 
of changes in temperature small cracks and fissures are 
gradually formed in the rock by the unequal expansion 
and contraction of the different minerals occurring: in it. 
When it rains the water flows down through all these 
cracks and lodges in countless minute fissures in the fiice 
of the rock. After a heavy rain, when the rock is filled 
with water, it may clear away and a sharp frost set in. 



18 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

Every drop of 'water freezes and expands and bursts 
open the rock, splitting off' minute specks and scales or 
throwing down great lumps. In tlie summer there is 
no frost, and yet the rain may be at work washing moss 
and dust into tlie cracks already opened and forming a 
sponge ready to hold water that, freezing next winter, 
will act with still greater force. The dry dust sifted 
into the cracks and oi)enings in the rock will also cx- 
})and when wet and push off" small pieces, or start a 
great mass that last winter's ice left just ready to fall. 
These disintegrating agencies are still further aided by 
the root-growth of plants, by the burrowing of worms 
and other earth-delving creatures, and in no small de- 
gree by the generation of organic acids — humic, crenic, 
etc. — by organic decay. 

Furthermore, rocks containing decomposable minerals 
undergo a chemical process of transformation in which 
the oxygen of the atmospheric air and water, as well as 
the carbonic acid dissolved in the latter, are the chief 
agents. The oxygen converts the metallic protoxides 
in the rocks into oxides, and, since water is almost always 
present, into hydroxides. Ferrous oxide combined with 
silica is in this manner changed to ferric hydrate. By 
this process the texture of minerals containing ferrous 
silicate — as, for instance, many feldspars, certain micas, 
hornblende, and augite (pyroxene) — is loosened. Rocks 
distinguished by the occurrence in them of metallic sul- 
phides, to which among tlie sedimentary rocks chiefly 
belong the clay-slates, bituminous marls, and clays, are 
decomposed by the conversion of their metallic sulpliides, 
on coming in contact with moist air, into sulphates or 
vitriols. By the lixiviation of the latter by water, the 



DERIYATIOX AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL. 19 

rock becomes porous and cellular, and finally breaks up 
into fragments. 

The process of kaolinization is due to the action of 
Avaters containing carbonic acid upon silicious rocks 
rich in alkalies (potash and soda) and alkaline earths 
(calcareous earth, magnesia). By such waters, M'liich 
acquire their carbonic acid, partially from the atmo- 
sphere, and partially from the organisms decaying upon 
the surface, the alkalies and alkaline earths are converted 
into carbonates and bicarbonates, while silica is sepa- 
rated. The carbonates and bicarbonates are soluble in 
water, and, together with the separated gelatinous silica, 
are carried away by the water, while a silicate of alu- 
minium containing water — the kaolin — remains behind. 
For this theory of the formation of kaolin we are in- 
debted to Forchhammer. It takes place, for instance, 
in orthoclase, which consists of one molecule potash, one 
molecule alumina, and six molecules silica, by the 
separation of four atoms silica and one atom potash, 
while the remaining alumina combines with two mole- 
cules silica and two molecules water to kaolin and clay. 

Denudation of the soil. — The rain falling on the wast- 
ing rocks sweeps away the minute specks and grains 
chipped off by the weather and carries them down to 
the nearest streamlet and brook. These fine bits of rock 
do not float, but are suspended in the water or roll along 
the bed of the stream. The ragged flakes and scales of 
stone crash and grind against each other. Ever}- rough 
corner is knocked oif, and all the pieces become rolled 
into smooth round particles. The brook is a mill. It 
is making, from the chips brought down by the rain, 
sand. A flood comes with more water, and larger pieces 



20 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS, 

ol" rock arc puslied into the rapidly moving water, and 
tliese knocking, tumbling, and grinding over each otlier, 
are soon ground into smooth round pebbk's and gi-avcl. 
Onward rolls the confused mass of gravel, sand, and 
finer bits of rocks, grinding and polisliing each piece 
as it o;ocs. In time the stream comes to more level 
ground and runs slower and slower. The current, 
not being able to push the larger stones any further, 
leaves them all by themselves. Thus the trans- 
ported matter is gradually deposited as the current 
diminishes in velocity, the very finest particles being 
carried as long as the stream remains in motion. "When 
the river reaches a flat or level tract, and over which its 
waters can flow in flood with a slow motion, the sus- 
pended matter, consisting principally of sand and mud, 
is deposited and ccyastitutes the alluvium or new land, 
formed by such deposits at the river's mouth and along 
its banks. Though the soil is thus continuously Mashed 
away, still it remains nearly constant in quantity, since 
M'hat is taken away by denudation is made up from 
other causes, and tliis augmentation can evidently pro- 
ceed from nothing but the slow and constant disintegra- 
tion of the rocks. 

The rocks which weather most easily and rapidly do 
not always exhibit most soil ; very often the reverse. A 
pure limestone would show hardly any Aveathered band 
or soil, because the carbonic acid of the rain would 
almost at once dissolve and remove the particles it acts 
upon. Even in the case of igneous rocks, their com- 
jiosition may be such that those which weather the most 
rapidly would, likewise, show little of a weathered 
l)and, owino; to the same solvent action. 



CLASSIFICATIOX OF SOILS. 21 

II. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 

Ijs conformity with Lorenz von Liburnau's system, 
soils may preferably be divided, according to their forma- 
tion, into two large principal groups, viz., primitive soils 
and derived soils. Primitive or original soils may be 
called such as have been directly formed by the weather- 
ing of exposed rocks, or, like peat, by the decomposition 
of vegetable remains in their original jjlace of location. 
According to the original structure, a distinction has to 
be made between primitive soils of the crystalline and 
of the sedimentary rocks, as well as of the peat forma- 
tions. Derived soils (deposited or transported soils) are 
such as have been transported either in a solid or liquid 
form by water, or, also, by the wind. 

For the further classification of soils it is preferable 
to make use of the physical system of soil classification 
proposed by Albrecht Thaer, the founder of scientific 
agriculture. He distinguishes the varieties of soil ac- 
cording to the predominance in them of the admixed 
parts of what may be called the principal soil con- 
stituents. From this result the following groups of 
soils: 1. Stony soils. 2. Sand soils. 3. Loam soils. 
4. Clay soils. 5. Marl soils. 6. Lime soils. 7. 
Humus soils. 

The same experience met everywhere in nature that 
sharp limits cannot be drawn in the classification of 
animate, as well as inanimate bodies, shows itself in the 



22 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

division of soils, the abovc-meutioned groups exhibiting 
veiy gradual transitions into eacli other, and even, like 
the day and marl soils, are already partially transition 
formations. 

A single principal constituent, be it sand, clay, lime, 
or humus, cannot afford to cultivated plants an adequately 
fertile soil ; the more uniformly all the constituents 
participate in the composition of the soil, the greater its 
value and yield will be. Hence, the quantitative de- 
termination of the principal constituents is an important 
task of scientific soil-analysis, since, on their proportions 
to each other, the value of the soil for cultivation de- 
pends. As is well known by a greater or smaller con- 
tent of clay, a sand-soil gains essentially in the power 
of holding water and in absorbent capacity. But the 
physical properties of a clay-soil are also improved by a 
content of sand, it becoming thereby more friable, more 
permeable, and more easy to cultivate. Of still greater 
importance to agriculture is a lime soil combined with 
sand and clay — hence, the more it apporaches a marl 
soil — while an extreme humus soil (peat) first re(piires 
special meliorations to make it fit for cultivation. 

It is not to be understood that in naming the varieties 
of soils after the princii)al constituent, the admixed part 
reaching the highest number of per cent, furnishes the 
name, this being the case only with sand and lijne soils. 
On the contrary, it is rather the physically most import- 
ant admixed part, which has to be considered as the guide 
in this respect, even if it is not represented by a relatively 
high number of per cent, in the composition of the soil. 
Thus clay is the most important soil constituent so long as 
its j)hi/sical properties arc not covered or invalidated by 



CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 23 

another admixed imrt If, for instance, this is done by 
sand, a soil when no longer plastic, but only binding, 
has to be classed among the loam soils. With a still 
greater content of sand, the soil also loses its binding 
power, and we have then a sandy loam or a loamy sand. 

Loams which may be considered as typical soils are a 
mixtnre of sand, clay, and humus, which are spoken of 
as light when the sand predominates, and as heavy when 
the clay is in excess. These terms, light and heavy, do 
not refer to the actual weight of the soil, but to its 
tenacity and the degree of resistance it offers to the im- 
plements used in cultivation. Sandy soils are, in the 
farmer's sense of the word, the lightest of all soils, because 
they are the easiest to work, whilst in actual weight they 
are the heaviest soils known. Clay, though hard to 
work on account of its tenacity, is comparatively a light 
soil in weight. Peaty soils are light in both senses of 
the word, they being loose or porous and having little 
actual weight. 

Besides the soils proper which come immediately under 
cultivation, there are in most places a set of subsoils which 
differ from the true soils, and which cannot be ignored. 
The tfue soils, or, as they are sometimes called, the top 
soils, are usually of a darker color from the larger ad- 
mixture of humus, whilst the subsoils are lighter in hue, 
yellow, red or bluish from the greater preponderance of 
the iron oxides. The soils are more or less friable in 
their texture, whilst the subsoils are tougher, more com- 
pact, and more largely commingled with rubbish and 
stone. The soils are usually a little more than mere sur- 
face coverings, whilst the subsoils may be many feet in 
thickness. 



24 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



• III. 

THE OBJECT OF SOIL-AKALYSIS. 

In the analysis of soils we may be guided by geological 
or agricultural considerations. 

From a purely geological standpoint, the determina- 
tion of the petrographic composition of the soil, as well 
as that of its relations to the mother rock — the weather- 
ing process — will chiefly be of interest. But, since the 
soil is of importance principally in an agricultural 
respect, it is also the object of most of the analyses of it 
to solve scientific and practical questions relating to 
agriculture as well as to a knowledge of the soil, and 
though the latter is an agronomic science, it must rest 
upon a geologico-petrographic basis. 

Those times in which the soil was simply considered 
the bearer, but not the nourisher of plants, and when it 
was believed that only its physical properties exerted an 
influence upon vegetation, have long since passed. To- 
day it is well known that, though the production of 
plants is niateriall}' influenced by these physical pro- 
perties, it does not exclusively depend upon it. 

One of its principal constituents — carbon — the plant 
absorbs directly from the atmospheric air, whilst all the 
remaining substances required for its nourishment and 
development, it obtains, partially directly and partially 
indirectly, from the soil. Since soil-analysis has for its 
object the determination of the nourishing matters of the 



THE OBJECT OF SOIL-ANALYSIS. 25 

plant, the elementary substances of the latter shall be 
briefly discussed. 

All the living parts of plants contain a large quantity 
of water, which not only forms a principal constituent 
of the juice, but also saturates all membranes and the 
protoplasm. In the substance of all organized vegetable 
structures small particles of water are stored. This 
water, which is absolutely necessary for vegetation, 
escapes on heating the parts of plants for some time to 
from 212° to 230° F. The content of water, which is 
to be calculated from the decrease in weight, varies very 
much in the different parts of jilants, it amounting, for 
instance, in dry seeds to from 12 to 15 per cent., in juicy 
plants to from 60 to 80 per cent., and in aquatic plants 
and fungi up to 95 per cent. The plant obtains the 
water directly from the soil, since on account of its 
capillary structure it possesses, similar to a sponge, the 
capacity of absorbing and retaining, to a more or less 
degree, the water offered to it. 

In the parts of plants dried at 230° F. a large num- 
ber of chemical combinations are found, of which those 
representing chemical unions of carbon with other ele- 
ments are designated as organic combinations. By 
incineration the organic combinations are destroyed, while 
the inorganic combinations of the plant substance remain 
behind as a white ash. It may here be mentioned that in 
the incineration of the plants, the sulphur, which forms a 
constituent of the organic combinations, also reaches, by 
chemical processes, the ash in which it is found as sul- 
phate. Furthermore, tlie carbonic acid formed during 
incineration and which combines with the inorganic 
substances of the residue, must also be left out of con- 



2G THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

sideratiou in aiuilyzing tJie ash. The organic combina- 
tions occurring in larger quantities in plants consist of 
carbon and hydrogen, or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
gen, or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. 

By experiments it has been determined tliat certain 
inorganic substances arc not accidentally admixed parts 
of the plant, but are absolutely necessary for its life and 
growth, and consequently for the formation of the above- 
mentioned organic combinations. 

The elements which are necessary for the nourishment 
of the plants may, according to their uses, be divided as 
follows : — 

Elements for the formation of the orr/anic combina- 
tions. — Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
and 

Elements for the formation of the inorganic combina- 
tions. — Phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, cah-ium, mag- 
nesium, and iron. 

Besides these, some other elements are occasionally 
found in the i)lant-ash, as, for instance, sodium, lithium, 
manganese, silicium, iodine, bromine, and, very seldom, 
aluminium, copper, zinc, nickel, barium; but are of no 
importance in the nourishment of the plants. 

From the above it follows, that in examining the soil 
as to its content of plant-nourishing substances, the 
eight following elements, independent of oxygen and 
hydrogen, have to be taken into consideration, namely : 
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, cal- 
cium, magnesium, and iron. 

Since, as previously indicated, the thriving of the plant 
depends not only on the chemical composition of the 
soil, but also, in a high degree, on its mechanical mixture 



THE OBJECT OF SOIE-ANALYSIS. 27 

and physical properties, a soil analysis which is to satisfy 
all demands of aoriculture has to be executed as fol- 
lows : — 

1. The mechanical mixture of the soil must be quau- 
titatively determined. This examination may be desig- 
nated mechanical soil analysis. 

2. The soil-constituents, sand, clay, humus, lime, have 
to be quantitatively determined. This is partially af- 
fected by the mechanical analysis and partially by 
chemical methods of analysis executed on the one hand, 
independent of the mechanical analysis, and on the 
other, in connection with it. 

3. The content of plant- nourishing substances in the soil 
has to be determined by chemical analysis. 

4. The substances injurious to the vegetable icorld must 
be taken into consideration. 

5. Experiments have to be made to gain direct in- 
formation in regard to certain properties of the soil, which 
depend partially on physical and partially on chemical 
causes. 

Such complete examinations are of great importance 
forjudging the soil, but it must be borne in mind that 
by them alone its value cannot be determined. The 
greater or inferior fertility of a soil depends not only on 
its mechanical and chemical composition, but also on 
various conditions outside of them; for instance, the 
more or less inclined, as well as the higher or lower 
location of the soil, the condition of the subsoil, the 
underground water, exposure to the sun, climate, etc. 



28 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 



IV. 

PKKPARATOllY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 

Before entering upon the metliods of analysis it will 
l)C necessary to discuss the labors which must precede them. 
They consist in tahing sampler from the soil and storing 
(Old preparing them for analysis. 

In the same field different varieties of soil often occur, 
and some recommend that in collecting a specimen for 
analysis, portions should be taken from different parts 
of the field and mixed together, by which an average 
quality of soil would be obtained. But this is bad 
advice when the soils in different parts of the field are 
really unlike. Suppose one part of a field to be clay and 
another sandy, as is often the case in most countries, and 
that an average mixture of the two varieties of soil is 
submitted to the analysis; the result obtained will a])])ly 
neither to the one part of the field nor to the other, that 
is, it will be of little or no practical value. In taking 
samples it is, therefore, recommended not to select mixed 
average samples, but characteristic separate samples. 

After selecting a proper spot, pull up the plants grow- 
ing on it and scrape off the surface lightly with a sharp 
tool, to remove half-decayed vegetable matter not, as yet, 
forming part of the soil. Dig a vertical hole, like a 
post-hole, at least twenty inches deep. Scrape the sides 
clean, so as to see at what depth the change of tint 
occurs which marks the downward limit of the surfiice 
soil and record it. Take at least half a bushel of the 



PREPARATORY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 29 

earth above this limit, and, on a eloth or paper, break it 
np and mix it thoroughly, and put up at least a quart of 
it in a sack or package for examination. This specimen 
will ordinarily constitute the "soil." Should the change 
of color occur at a less depth than six inches, the fact 
should be noted, but the specimen taken to that depth 
nevertheless, since it is the least to which rational culture 
can be supposed to reach. 

In case the difference in the character of a shalloAv sur- 
face soil and its subsoil should be unusually great, as may 
be the case in tule or other alluvial lands or in rocky 
districts, a separate sample of that surface soil should be 
taken besides the one to the depth of six inches. 

Specimens of salty or " alkali" soils should, as a rule, 
be taken only toward the end of the dry season, when 
they will contain the maximum amount of the injurious 
ingredients which it may be necessary to neutralize. 

Whatever lies beneath the line of change, or below the 
minimum depth of six inches, will constitute the subsoil. 
But, should the change of color occur at a greater depth 
than twelve inches, the "soil" specimen should, never- 
theless, be taken to the depth of twelve inches only, 
which is the limit of ordinary tillage ; then another 
specimen from that depth down to the line of change, 
and the subsoil specimens beneath that line. The depth 
down to which the last should be taken will depend on 
circumstances. It is always desirable to know what 
constitutes the foundation of a soil down to the depth of 
three feet at least, since tJie question of drainage^ resist- 
ance to draught, etc., will depend essentially upon the 
nature of the substratum. But in ordinary cases ten or 
twelve inches of subsoil will be sufficient for the purpose 



30 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

of examination in the laboratory. The specimen should 
be taken in other respects precisely like that of the surface 
soil, while that of the material underlying this " sul)soil" 
may be taken with less correctness, perhaps at some ditch 
or other easily accessible point, and should not be broken 
np like the other specimens.* 

At tlie same time when taking samples, the general 
condition of the soil should be noted and accurate in- 
formation gained chiefly in regard to the following 
points : — 

1. The geological origin and petrographic nature of 
the soil. 

2. The relations of the foundation of the soil to a 
depth of six feet if possible. 

3. The thickness of tlu; surfiice soil. 

4. The location of the soil above the level of the sea. 

5. The inclination of the soil. 

6. The height of the underground water. 

7. The climatic conditions of the region. 

8. The judgment of a practical agriculturist residing 
in the neighborhood in regard to the quality and yield- 
ing capacity of the soil. 

9. The manner and quantity of manuring the soil has 
received in the preceding years. 

10. The meliorations (marling, draining, irrigation, 
etc.) which may have been made. 

1 1 . The lowest yields and rotation of crops. 

In fact, every circumstance that can throw light on 
the agricultural qualities or peculiarities of soil and 
subsoil should be carefully noted. 

* Soil Investigation, by E. W. Ililgard, in Tenth Census of the 
U. S., vol. 5. Cotton Production, Washington, 1884. 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 31 

It is recommended to unmediately label each sample. 

In summer, the sample is allowed to dry out slowly 
in the air, and in winter, in a moderately warm room 
until it shows a quite equal and constant weight. In 
this condition it is called air-dry soil. If the sample has 
to be kept any length of time, it is recommended to store 
it in wide-mouthed glass bottles hermetically closed, as 
otherwise it might undergo changes in the laboratory 
where vapors of ammonia and acids cannot always be 
avoided. Clayey and humus varieties of soils possess 
the property of absorbing ammoniacal vapors, and, hence, 
if the sample has for a long time remained unprotected 
in the laboratory, the analysis would show too high a 
content of nitrogen. 



V. 

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 

The object of mechanical soil-analysis is the quan- 
titative determination of the proportional quantities of 
coarser and finer constituents composing the soil. To 
attain such a mechanical separation of the soil two 
mediums are employed — granulating with the sieve, and 
elutriating with water or silt analysis, 

A. Granulating with the sieve. — For the examination 
of soils with coarser constituents, granulation with the 
sieve should always precede silt-analysis, since such soils 
cannot be well brought into the elutriating apparatus, 
and, even if this were possible, would clog it. Sieves 



32 THE EXAMIXATION OF SOILS. 

with round holes arc to be prcfcrral to squarc-moslicd 
sieves, they permitting more accnrate measurements. 

In order to sufficiently characterize the mechanical 
composition of a soil, ami to compare it with other 
varieties, the soil is divided into the following pro- 
ducts : — 

1. Grains larger than 2 millimeters in diameter. 



2. 


" from 2 to 1 


3, 


" Ito 0.5 


4. 


" " O.f) to 0.2 


5. 


" 0.2 to 0.1 


6. 


" 0.1 to 0.05 


7. 


" 0.05 to 0.01 


8. 


" smaller than 0.01 



The sizes of grains Nos. 1 to 3, i. e,, to 0.5 millimeters 
in diameter, are obtained by sifting through sieves with 
holes 2, 1, and 0.5 millimeters in diameter; all otlier 
products of granulation are separated, as will be shown 
later on by silt analysis. 

For the execution of the mechanical analysis, spread 
the air-dry soil out upon a sheet of paper or in a shallow 
dish, and, after finely dividing it by rubbing between 
the hands, or by means of a wooden pestle in a mortar, 
weigh out a good average sample of 500 to 100 grammes. 
For weighing all the products of granulation ol)tained 
by sifting and elutriating, as well as for the physical ex- 
periments, an accurate balance nnist, of course, l;e used. 
The quantity weighed out for granulation is then passed, 
in a dry state, through the 2-millimeter sieve. 

Since the entire sample of soil has been weighed, it is 
only necessary to w^eigh the residue remaining in the 2- 
millimeter sieve. The quantity of soil which has passed 
throu<rh the sieve is then learned from the difference 



MECHANICAL SOIL-AXALYSIS. 33 

resulting by deducting the product of granulation of over 
2 millimeters from the total weight. With loamy soils 
the product of granulation of over 2 millimeters must 
always, before weighing, be rinsed off with distilled 
water to free it from adhering sand and loam, then dried 
at 212° F. upon the sand-bath, and weighed only when 
entirely cold. 

The soil which has passed through the 2-millimeter 
sieve will be designated as fine soil. It forms the initial 
material to he employed in the silt analysis as well as in 
the chemical investigations in the execution of which 'pro- 
ducts of elutriation are not to be used. 

Emil Wolft* and Schoene designate as fine earth the 
soil which has passed through a 3-millimeter sieve. 
Knop's conception is a still different one. He calls 
fine earth the soil which has passed through a ^-mil- 
limeter sieve, and fine soil the residue resulting from 
igniting the fine earth. M. Fesca applies the term^ine 
soil to soil less than 4 millimeters in diameter. 

From what has been said it will be seen that there is 
a great difference in the ideas of agricultural chemists as 
to what constitutes fine soil and fine earth, and yet it is 
absolutely necessary to establish a definite limit of value 
for them, since, if every analyst selects another initial 
substance, all possibility of comparing the analytical re- 
sults must of course cease. We therefore adhere through- 
out to the ievva.fine soil as a designation for soil less than 
2 millimeters in diameter, and take it as the initial mate- 
rial for analysis, as has for a number of years been cus- 
tomary in the laboratory for soil analysis in the Royal 
Prussian Geological Institute. 
3 



34 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

The fine soil Avhieh has passed through the 2-milli- 
meter sieve is thoroughly mixed and 30 to 100 grammes 
of it taken for silt analysis. 

The residue remaining after the silt analysis, with 
an elutriating velocity of 25 millimeters, is dried and 
weighed and then further granulated by passing through 
sieves with holes 1 and 0.5 millimeter in diameter. 

B. Silt anali/si.s. — The object of silt analysis is to sepa- 
rate the fine soil obtained in the abov^e-described manner 
into still finer products of granulation. 

The principle adopted in the apparatus used for 
this purpose is either to separate the coarser from the 
finer particles by their different subsiding velocities in 
water at rest (decanting apparatus), or to effect separa- 
tion by an ascending jet of water (rinsing or elutriating 
apparatus). 

To the former class of apparatus belong: 1. Bennig- 
sen's elutriating flask ; 2. Knop's elutriating cylinder; 
and 3. Julius Kuehn's elutriating cylinder ; and to the 
latter class the elutriating apparatuses of Noebel, Schoene, 
and Hilgard. 

Of these apparatuses only Schoene's and Hilgard's 
yield suflfi(nently reliable results. However, as Noebel's 
apparatus is occasionally used, it shall also be briefly de- 
scribed. 

1. Xoehers elutriating apparatus. — This apparatus, 
Fig. 1, consists of a water reservoir of 10 liters' capa- 
city and four pear-shaped vessels, whose volumes arc 
as 1 : 8 : 27 : ()4 = P : 2^ : 3^ : 4^, and which are con- 
nected with each other by knce-shapcd tubes. The last 
small vessel is connected with the water reservoir by 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 



oO 



means of a rubber tube provided with a clip. The 
largest vessel in front is provided with a discharge 
tube, the point of which is drawn out, so that when 
the apparatus is filled with water 9 liters run out in 



Fiff. 1. 




40 minutes. The water reservoir is provided with a 
gauge, A, so that elutriation may be carried on with 
a constant pressure by connecting the tube, a, with a 
water reservoir located at a higher level. 

Fifty grammes of the soil to be elutriated (which, by 
agreement, is to be less than 1 millimeter in diameter) 
are prepared by boiling with water, and are then rinsed 
into the second smallest vessel, 6, the smallest vessel 
being filled with water only. The two larger vessels 
are then filled to the brim with water, and after con- 
necting the entire system by the connecting tubes the 
clip is opened and the water allowed to flow for 40 



36 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

minutes through the apparatus. Tlie following products 
of elutriatiou are obtained by this operation : — 

1. The residue in vessel II. 

2. The residue in vessel III. 

3. The residue in vessel IV. 

4. The particles of soil elutriated from vessel IV. 

By now evaporating the residues in vessels IL, III., 
and IV. in small, weighed porcelain dishes and then 
weighing them, the finest elutriated parts are obtained 
from the difference. 

Noebel's apparatus, with its four vessels of ever-varj^- 
ing capacity and slope of sides and variable head of 
pressure, has many defects. Not one of the sediments 
obtainable by its use is ever of a character approaching 
uniformity, and even in one and the same instrunie*it 
successive analyses of one and the same material differ 
widely in their results. 

2. Sohoene's elutriating apparatus. — Like Noebel's, 
this also is a rinsing apparatus, a current of water 
regulated by a stop-cock and rising vertically in the 
elutriating space being also used. The water comes 
from a reservoir standing at a higher level. 

Whilst in the elutriating process, by means of decan- 
tation, the gravity retarded by the fall in water is made 
use of in Schoene's as well as in Noebcl's apparatus, an 
impelling force of the waters upwards, acting counter 
to the gravity, is employed. Hence, in Schoene's ap- 
paratus, by velocity of elutriation is understood the space 
through which a particle of soil is lifted in one second. 
The length of this space is dependent on the volume- 
content of the elutriating vessel, the cross-section and 



MECHANICAL SOIL-AXALYSIS. 



37 




specific gravity of the particle of soil, as well as on the 

velocity of the ascending current of water. 

Schoene's elutriator, Fig. 2, consists of a glass vessel, 

the upper portion, B, of which must be perfectly 

cylindrical and at least 10 centimeters 

... Fio-. 2. 

long, so that during elutriation an en- "' ' 

tirely uniform velocity of current pre- 
vails, at least, in the upper portion. 
Its clear diameter should be, according 
to Schoene, 5 centimeters, as accurately 
as possible. In order to accurately fix < 
still smaller velocities, this diameter 
should not be less than 4 centimeters. 
The cylindrical portion is joined by the 
very gradually tapering portion (7, 
which is 50 centimeters long. Below 
the portion C passes into a tube D E 
the clear diameter of which should, 
under no conditions, be more than 5 
millimeters, and not less than 4 milli- 
meters. This tube is bent semicircularly 
and extended upwards in a vertical 
direction. Above the cylindrical space 
the apparatus has a shoulder, and passes 
into the neck A, which serves for the 
reception of a perforated rubber cork. 
The neck is 2 centimeters long, with a 
diameter of 1.5 to 2 centimeters. 

A piezometer, which serves as an indicator of the cur- 
rent velocity, is pushed through the rubber cork. It has 
a clear diameter of 3 millimeters, and, at a point 8 centi- 
meters above its lower end, is bent twice in the form of 



38 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

a knee at an angle of 45°. In the zenith of the second 
bend is a circular discharge-aperture, the edges of which 
should be as smooth as possible. From 1 to 10 centi- 
meters the piezometer is graduated into millimeters, from 
10 to 15 centimeters into half centimeters, and above 
that into whole centimeters. 

In order that the current of water, which is regulated 
by a stop-cock, may remain as constant as possible, it is 
necessary to use as a reservoir a capacious shallow box 
of zinc with a capacity of 50 liters, in which the level 
undergoes but little change during elutriation. 

The arrangement shown in Fig. 3 is very suitable 
for the elutriating process. 

The table C serves for securing the elutriators, and is 
71 centimeters high, 50 centimeters wide, and 85 cen- 
timeters long. Its top consists of lath-work. The 
elutriators are inserted between the laths and screwed 
into the joints of a stand provided with a heavy cast- 
iron plate. To render it more secure the plate of the 
stand is by means of a binding screw fastened to the 
table. The latter also carries a wooden frame, G, 140 
centimeters high, which, on the top, is provided with 
two shiftable coupling boxes for the support of the 
])iezometer tubes. The Avater reservoir F is provided 
with a glass gauge and stands upon a board secured by 
cramp irons. The inlet pipes E, screwed in the bottom 
of the reservoir and provided with brass cocks, D, 
are connected by means of rubber tubing with the 
elutriators. 

The elutriating velocity in the cylindrical space of 
Schoene's elutriator (Fig. 2 B) with a determined head 
of pressure is dependent on the cross section of the 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 
Fiff. 3. 



39 




40 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

cylinder and the size of the discharge aperture on the 
piezometer. Hence it is necessary first accurately to de- 
termine the diameter of the cylindrical elutriating space. 
For this purpose graduate the cylinder by pasting strips 
of paper on the outside. A plane laid through the 
upper edge of the two strips of paper should stand as 
perpendicular as possible to the axis of the cylinder; 
the distance of the two strips of paper from each other 
sliould be 10 centimeters. Now fill the entire cylinder 
with water, close the end of the tube E with a cork, so 
that no air-bubbles remain therein, and let the lower 
meniscus of the water in the cylindrical space sit upon 
the upper edge of the uppermost strip of paper, whereby 
the axis of the cylinder should stand as perpendicular 
as possible. Now, by means of a pipette, remove the 
water from the cylinder to the upper edge of the lower 
strip of pajicr, and bring it into a measuring vessel 
graduated into cubic millimeters. 

The content of a cylinder (/), as is well known, is 
equal to the product of the base {v^Tt) and the altitude 




Now since the cross section of the cylindrical portion 
of the elutriator is known, the water is put at a de- 
termined height into the piezometer and a measuring 
flask, for instance, a liter, is allowed to run full, the 
number of seconds, t, required to fill the flask being noted 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 41 

by a stop-watch. The quantity [Q) which flows out iu 
a second is then : — 

t 

The ehitriating velocity is obtained by dividing the 
number of cubic-millimeters, which have not run out in 
one second, by the cross section of the cylinder in square 
millimeters [K) : — 

/x mm^\ 

~W^ q 

K 

If a definitely determined elutriating velocity is desired, 
commence first at a higher point of the piezometer, 
calculate the velocity from the quantity discharged in 
one second, and note whether it approaches tlie desired 
velocity or not. According to the result, commence the 
next experiment at a higher or lower mark of the piezo- 
meter. 

With the use of very slight elutriating velocities, the 
thread of water does not appear at a fixed mark, only 
a dripping of the fluid taking place on the discharge 
aperture of the piezometer. In this case, the point to 
which the meniscus of the thread of water in the piezo- 
meter sinks in dripping off is taken as the mark, the 
number of drops running off in one minute being also 
counted. For calculating the quantity discharged in 
one second, it suffices to allow a measuring flask of 100 
cubic-centimeters capacity to run full. By a few experi- 
ments, in which the water-level in the piezometer is so 
regulated that the mean between the two last determined 



42 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

limits is always taken, the water-level corresponding to 
the elutriating velocity sought is readily obtained. 

Instead of tliis empirical manner of finding a de- 
termined elutriating velocity, it can also be calculated by 
taking the piezometer graduated into centimeters as a 
basis. 

According to the theoretical law of discharge, the 
qnantities of discharge with one and the same piezometer, 
and hence, for one and the same discharge aperture, are 
as the square roots from the heads of pressure in the 
piezometer. If, now, the heads of pressure are indicated 
by hi and hn, and the quantities of discharge in one sec- 
ond by 2i and 2ii, the result will be the equation : — 

hi V 



hn 2n^ (No. 1.) 

In the case in question the law of discharge has to be 
somewhat modified, as the water-leVel in the piezometer 
is influenced by the capillary attraction in the narrow 
tube of the piezometer, as well as by the resistance the 
water meets with in running from the narrow discharge 
aperture. Hence to eliminate these influences, a constant 
magnitude, (7, to be empirically determined for all heads 
of pressure of the same piezometer, must, according to 
Schoene's experiments, be deducted from the observed 
head of water h. Thereby, equation Xo. 1 is modified 
as follows : — 

h^ — C 2i^ 

Axi-C"2xi» (Xo. 2.) 

For the determination of the constant magnitude, C, it 
suffices to execute two experiments by once allowing a 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 43 

liter to run full at as low a head of pressure (2 to 3 centi- 
meters), and then at as high a liead of pressure (80 to 
100 centimeters) as possible, noting the number of seconds 
and calculating the quantity discharged in one second. 
By inserting the data obtained in formula No. 2, the fol- 
lowino; formula results : — 

C= ^^'-^'^"^"-^'^ centimeters (No. 3.) 

9292 ^ ^ 

The constant magnitude C having thus been found, 
the corresponding quantities of discharge, Qn, can be 
calculated for all desired heads of pressure, or, also, the 
corresponding heads of pressure for all desired quantities 
of discharge. 

From formula No. 3 result : — 

Q 

Qn= -y/ hi — C. / J -Ti cubic-centimeters (No. 4.) 

hn = Qn^. h — C , ^ 4.- j. /at r \ 

^ h C centmieters (No. 5.). 

Since the quantities of discharge in one second Q, also 
flow in the same time through any cross section of the 
elutriating space whose diameter is D, it follows that if 
V designates the elutriating velocity in one second : — 

Q=^'^]j2 centimeters (No. 6.) 

"" ^' centimeters (No. 7.) 

Hence when the constant magnitude C has been de- 
termined by experiments and the velocity v, in the 
elutriating space at a determined head of pressure /* is 



44 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

known, it can be readily calcnlated what head of water, 
hn, has to be nsed, in order to obtain the velocity, vn, 
sought. It is only necessary in this case to insert the 
value for Q from ft)rnui]a No. 6, and the corresponding 

valne for On = vn— D^ in formula Xo. 5, wherebv is 
4 • 

obtained 

J,n = r 'L^y h-C+C=v^ '^^^+ C 

(-p-A (No. 8.) 

AVith an approximately equal specific gravity and 
globular form of the material determined sizes of grains 
correspond to determined velocities. By experiments, 
Schoene has determined that with quartz sand in globular 
form and elutriating velocities of from 0.1 to 12 milli- 
meters per second, the following relation exists between 
the diameter of the grains d and the elutriating velocity 
V : — 

d = 0.0314 V — millimeters. 
11 

From his calculations, controlled by microscopical 
measurements, it follows that starting from quartz in 
globular form, the annexed products of granulation cor- 
respond to the following elutriating velocities : — 

0.2 millimeter of elutriating velocity = grain less than 0.01 niillim. 
2.0 millimeters " " = " from 0.05 to 0.01 " 

7.0 " " " = " " 0.1 to 0.05 " 

Since, on account of the narrowness of the discharge 
a])crture in the piezometer, a velocity of 7 millimeters 
can onlv be obtained bv the introduction of a second 



MECHANICAL SOIL-AX A LYSIS. 45 

piezometer with a wider discharge aperture, Orth has 
proposed the insertion of a small auxiliary cylinder 
2.5 centimeters in diameter. Its cylindrical portion 
should be 50 centimeters long, so that it can also be used 
for a velocity of 25 millimeters. 

Since the production of an accurate sieve with holes 
0.2 millimeter in diameter is very difficult and expen- 
sive, and the sifting of the soil through such a sieve does 
not yield good results on account of the holes readily 
clogging up, Laufer's proposition to obtain the size of 
grains from 0.2 to 0.1 millimeter by elutriation may be 
recommended. For this purpose Orth's auxiliary 
cylinder is used ; a piezometer about 5 millimeters in 
diameter and with a discharge aperture of from 3 to 3.5 
millimeters being placed upon it. The cross-section of 
the cylinder is determined in the previously described 
manner, and, in order to find the velocity of 25 milli- 
meters which corresponds to the size of grains 0.2 to 0.1 
millimeters in diameter, the quantities discharged at dif- 
ferent marks of the piezometer are measured. AVhen 
the desired velocities in the various elutriators have been 
dietermined, a table is made according to the following 
scheme, which is used for all analyses to be executed 
with the apparatus : — 



46 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



Large elutriator. 


Small elutriator. 


Diameter : mm. 
Cross section : ituii^. 


Diameter : mm. 
Cross section : mvi^. 


Head of water in 
the narrow piezo- 
meter, em. 


Velocity in one 
second. 


Head of water in 

tlie narrow piezo- 

iiuter, ciu. 


Velocity in one 
second. 




0.2 mm. 








2.0 mm. 












7.0 mm. 






Head of water in 
the wide piezo- 
meter, cm. 


25.0 mm. 



For the execution of au analysis, the air-dried fine soil 
passed through the 2-millimeter sieve is used. Spread 
the soil upon a sheet of paper and weigh out an average 
sample of exactly 100 grammes. Of very uniformly 
and finely divided soils, 30 to 40 grammes suffice for 
the analysis. 

Bring the quantity of soil, weighed out, into a porce- 
lain or enamelled iron dish, pour distilled water over it 
and boil it, with constant stirring with a glass rod, until 
the clayey constituents are entirely dissolved. AMth 
tenacious clay soils, small nodules of clay frequently re- 
main behind wdiich do not dissolve even with continued 
boiling ; and it is best to crush them with the index-finger, 
which for the purpose should be protected with a thick 
rubber coating. The material thus prepared is permitted 
to become cold, when, without .stirring up the sediment, 
the supernatant turbid fiuid is poured into the large 
elutriator of the apparatus. No^v, by opening the stop- 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 47 

cock, fill the small elutriator before connecting it ^Yith 
the larger elutriator, with water up to above the semi- 
circular lower bend. The purpose of this is, on the one 
hand, to prevent the apparatus from becoming clogged, 
when introducing the soil, by the latter ascending in the 
narrow tube, and, on the other, to avoid mistakes in the 
commencement of the elutriating process by ascending air 
bubbles. For the introduction of the soil into the small 
elutriator, it is best to place upon the latter a wide- 
mouthed funnel and inject the material with the assist- 
ance of a wash bottle. Detach any adhering particles 
by means of a glass rod, the lower end of which is 
covered with a piece of rubber tubing. 

If it is intended to make further chemical investiga- 
tions with the products of elutriation at 0.2 and 2 milli- 
meters velocity, the soil has to be elutriated w'ith distilled 
water. This is necessary, because in gaining the product 
of elutriation at 0.2 millimeter velocity, the elutriating 
water has to be evaporated, and, by the use of ordinary 
water, too many impurities would be introduced into the 
material under investigation. The product of elutria- 
tion at 0.2 millimeter velocity can only be elutriated 
w^ith ordinary water, if it is not to be weighed, but to be 
calculated from the loss. 

For elutriation with distilled water it is best to use 
the apparatus shown in Fig. 4, A glass tube, d, reaching 
to the bottom of a glass balloon. A, filled with distilled 
water, connects with a glass flask, B, of about 10 liters 
capacity. Near the top of the tube d is inserted a glass 
tube provided with the glass stop-cock, a. The rubber 
cork of the flask B is provided with two other perfora- 
tions, in one of which is inserted, even with the under 



48 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



side of the cork, tlie knee-shaped glass tube g, which is 
connected by means of a rubber tube witli tlic lead tube 
e. The latter is connected with a small Mater air-pump 
so that a rarefied space can be created in B. Through 
the tliird perforation in the rubber cork passes a siphon, 
/(, reaching to the bottom of the flask, the long leg of 
which is provided below with a glass stop-cock, h. This 

Fiff. 4. 




siphon h passes into one of the tubulures of the glass 
flask C standing at a lower level, while the other tubulure 
serves for the reception of the water-gauge D, tln-ough 
the bottom of which passes the tube e, which eifects the 
constant level of the water. On each side, near the bot- 
tom, the gauge D is provided with a tubulure, one serv- 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 49 

iug to connect the gaug& with the flask C, while the 
other, by means of a rubber tube and an inserted tube 
provided with a glass stop-cock, /, communicates with 
the two elutriators. When the flask B is to be filled, 
the stop-cocks a and b are closed, and after putting the 
air-pump in action, it is connected with the tube c. In 
consequence of this a rarefied space is formed in B, and 
the water will ascend from the balloon through the tube 
d and fill B. Now, in order to have a constant level 
while elutriating, the flask B is filled, the stop-cocks a 
and b are opened, and approximately as much water is 
allowed to flow into C as in elutriating flows out of this 
vessel. The water discharged from the gauge-])ipe e 
may be caught and poured back into the balloon. 

After the soil has, in the manner previously mentioned, 
been introduced into the small elutriator, the stop-cock, 
/, which serves for regulating the current of water, is 
opened a little and the operation commenced at the mark 
on the piezometer tube corresponding to the lowest 
elutriating velocity of 0.2 millimeters. Two or three 
liters are first allowed to run oif, and, in case the jiroduct 
of elutriation is to be gained, evaporated in a large 
porcelain dish upon the water bath. In this manner 
one is sure to obtain all the soil constituents soluble in 
water. If, after running ofi" two or three liters, the 
water in the elutriating space of the large elutriator has 
not become entirely clear, elutriation is continued at the 
same velocity, without interrupting the operation, until 
nearly complete clarification takes place in the U])per 
portion of the elutriating space. The elutriating water 
thus obtained is brought into a large porcelain dish and 
heated to boiling. By continued boiling the suspended 
4 



50 THE EXAIMINATION OF SOILS. 

particles of clay ball together and settle on tlic bottom, 
so that, after cooling and standing for some time, the 
supernatant, nearly clear water may be siplioncd off and 
thrown away. The sediment is added to, the product of 
eliitriation first obtained. 

In many cases the further elutriating proce.'^s may be 
continued with ordinary ^vater, the remaining products 
of elutriation depositing readily so that the supernatant 
water can almost be entirely siphoned off. The })roduct 
of elutriation is then several times washed with distilled 
water, and, after allowing the sediment to settle, the 
water is siphoned off. 

The velocity next to be used is dependent on the pro- 
portion of the cross-sections of the two elutriators. If 
the velocity of 7 millimeters appears in the snudl 
elutriator at a greater height of the ])iezometer than tlie 
velocity of 2 millimeters in the large elutriator, com- 
mence fii'st at tlie height of the piezometer at which a 
velocity of 2 millimeters prevails in the large elutriator. 
In the reverse case, first elutriate with a velocity of 7 
millimeters in the small elutriator, and, only after dis- 
engaging the latter, set the piezometer so as to obtain a 
velocity of 2 millimeters in the large elutriator. 

The products of elutriation are caught in large cylin- 
drical glass vessels (.4, Fig. 8) having a capacity of 
from 10 to 15 liters. After, with a velocity of 7.0 milli- 
meters, clarification has taken place in the small 
elutriator, the wide piezometer (compare p. 45) is placed 
upon the small elutriator and elutriation continued 
with 25 millimeters velocity until clarification is com- 
plete. 

By the elutriating process the fi)]l(iwing products have 



MECHANICAL SOIL- ANA LYSIS. 51 

been obtained (compare the numbers in the table, 
p. ;]2):- 

8. Product of elutriatiou at 0.2 millimeter velocity. Discharge. 

7. " " 2.0 " " " 

6. " " 7.0 " " Residue in the 

large elutria- 
tor (eventual- 
ly also partial 
discharge). 

5. " " 25.0 " " Discharge. 

4. Residue " 25.0 " " Residue in the 

small elutria- 
tor. 

The two residues (6 and 4) are best removed from the 
elutriators by connecting the latter with the water reser- 
voir, then ijiverting them in a large dish, and, after 
opening the cock, rinsing out their contents. 

The supernatant clear water is next siphoned oflP, when 
the products of elutriatiou are brought into small 
previously weighed porcelain dishes with flat bottoms 
and for some time dried in a sand bath heated to about 
212° F. After cooling, the dishes, before being weighed, 
are allowed to stand at least one or two days so that the 
products of elutriatiou may re-acquire the content of 
moisture of the air of the room. 

The products obtained by granulation and elutriation 
are centesimally calculated for the entire soil, and the 
figures entered in the following scheme : — 



52 



THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 



Gravel 
more 
than 


Sand. 


(I aye J 
Dust. 


parts. 
Finest. 


Tolal. 


2 mm in 
diameter. 


2 to 
1 mm. 


1 to 
0.5 mm. 


0.5 to 
0.2 mm. 


0.2 to 0.1 to 
0.1 mm. 0.05 mm. 


0.05 to 
0.01 mm. 


less than 
0.01 mm. 




2.4 


71.0 


26.7 


100.1 




2.0 


3.G 


16.0 


32.3 


17.1 


12.4 


14.3 





]\ristakes in elutriating with Schoene's apparatns are 
avoided by executing the process as uninterruptedly and 
uniformly as possible. I^umerous experiments have 
shown that the method yields sufficiently accurate 
results. 

3. JTilgard's elutriating apparatus. — To avoid mis- 
takes arising from flocculent aggregates of the finest 
particles of soil, Prof. E. W. Hilgard has proposed* the 
elutriatiug apparatus shown at Fig. 5. He uses a 
cylindrical elutriating tube, T, of 34.8 millimeters inside 
diameter at its mouth, and 290 millimeters high. At- 
tached to its base is a rotary cliurn, P, consisting of a 
porcelain beaker triply perforated, viz., at the bottom 
for connection with the relay reservoir, R ; and at the 
sides for tlie passage of a horizontal axis. A, bearing four 
grated wings. This axis, of course, passes througli stuffiug 
boxes firmly cemented to the roughened outside of the 
beaker and provided with good thick leather washers, 
saturated with tallow. These washers, if the axes run 
true, will bear a million or more of revolutions without 



* E. W. Hilgard. Silt Analysis of Soils and Clays. 
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. VI., October, 1S73. 



Am. 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 



53 



material leakage. From 500 to 600 revolutions per 
minute is a proper velocity, which may be imparted by 
clock-work or a turbine. 

As the whirling agitation caused by the rotation of 
the dasher would gradually communicate itself to the 
whole column of water, and cause irregularities, a (pre- 

Fig. 5. 




ferably concave) wire screen of 0.8 millimeter aperture 
is cemented to the lower end of the cylinder. No 
irregular currents are then observed beyond about 75 
millimeters above the screen, whose meshes are yet 
sufficiently wide to allow any heavy particles or aggre- 
gates to sink down freely. Any grains too coarse to pass 
must, however, be previously sifted out. 



54 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

Thus arranged, the instrument works quite satis- 
factorily ; and by its aid, soils and clays may readily be 
separated into sediments of any hydraulic value desired. 
But in order to insure correct and concordant* results, 
it is necessary to observe some prec!autions, to wit : — 

1. The tube of the instrument must be as nearly 
cylindrical as possible, and must be placed and main- 
tained in a truly vertical position. A very slight devia- 
tion from the vertical at once causes the formation of 
return currents, and hence of molecular aggregates on 
the lower side, 

2. Sunshine, or the proximity of any other source of 
heat, must be carefully excluded. The currents formed 
when the instrument is exposed to sunshine will com- 
pletely vitiate the results. 

3. The Mariotte's bottle should be frequently cleansed, 
and the water used be as free from foreign matters as 
possible. For ordinary purposes, it is scarcely necessary 
to use distilled water ; the quantities used are so large as 
to render it difficult to maintain an adequate supply; 
and the errors resulting from the use of any water fit 
for drinking purposes are too slight to be perceptible, so 
long as no considerable development of the animal and 
vegetable germs is allowed. Water containing the slimy 
fibrils of fungoid and moss prothallia, vorticella?, etc. 
will not only cause errors by obstructing the stop-cock 
at low velocities, but these organisms will cause a coa- 
lescence of sediments that defies any ordinary churning, 
and completely vitiates the operation. 

4. The amount of sediment discharged at any one 

* Usually within 5 per cent, of the quantities found. 



MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 55 

time must not exceed that prodacing a moderate turbidity. 
Whenever the discharge becomes so copious as to render 
the moving column opaque, the sediments assume a 
mixed character ; coarse grains being, apparently, upborne 
by the multitude of light ones whose hydraulic value 
lies considerably below the velocity used ; Avhile the 
churner also fails to resolve the molecular aggregates 
which must be perpetually reforming, where contact is 
so close and frequent. 

This difficulty is especially apt to occur when too large 
a quantity of material has been used for analysis, or 
when one sediment constitutes an unusually large portion 
of it. In either case, a portion of the substance may be 
allowed to settle into the relay reservoir until the part 
afloat in the churn and tube is partly exhau^^^ed ; after 
which the rest can be gradually brought up and worked 
off. Or, the sediments shown by the microscope to be 
much mixed, may be worked over a second time. Either 
mode, however, involves so grievous a loss of time as to 
render it by far preferable to so regulate the amount 
employed, that even the most copious sediments can be 
worked off at once. Within certain limits, the smaller 
the quantity employed, the more concordant are the 
results. Between ten and fifteen grammes is the proper 
amount for an instrument of the dimensions given 
above. 

It has been found that, practically, 0.25 millimeter 
per second is about the lowest velocity available within 
reasonable limits of time; and that by successively 
doubling the velocities up to 64 millimeters, a desirable 
ascending series of sediments is obtained, provided 
always that a proper previous preparation had been given 
to the soil or clay. 



56 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

VI. 

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 

A. Determination of the content of calcium carbonate 
or of magnesium carbonate. — With soils containing only- 
small quantities of magnesium carbonate, it suffices to 
determine the carbonic acid expelled by stronger acids, 
and to calculate from it the equivalent quantity of cal- 
cium carbonate. 

The content of calcium or magnesium carbonate in a 
soil is of double significance, for, on the one hand, 
they may be present in such large quantities as to form 
an important constituent of the soil, and, on the other, 
they play an important role in the nourishing of plants, 
even if present in such small quantities that they can no 
longer be classed as constituents. 

According to the degree of accuracy aimed at, the 
carbonic acid may be determined by three different 
methods, viz : by volumetric measurement, by weighing 
from the loss, or by direct weighing a volumetric measure- 
ment of the carbonic acid ivith Scheibler^s apparatus. 

a. Volumetric measurement of the carbonic acid is made 
use of for strongly calcareous soil ; for instance, diluvial 
marls, meadow limes, and argillaceous marls, -where the 
rapid determination of the approximative content of 
calcium carbonate in whole per cent, is sufficiently 
accurate. As the initial material for this purpose, fine 
soil dried at 212° F. is used, and if such is not at hand, 
the soil itself. The material is to be quite finely pulver- 
ized in a cast-steel mortar. 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 57 



Scheibler's apparatus, Fig. 6, is arranged as follows : — 
Two glass tubes 28 millimeters in diameter are vertically 
secured to a wooden frame. The tube to the right is 
graduated into half and whole centimeters and holds about 
300 cubic centimeters. Below both the tubes are con- 
nected by a bent glass tube. The top of the tube to the 
left is closed by a cotton plug. Near the bottom of this 
tube is a glass tube which is bent upwards and connects, 
by means of a rubber tube provided with a clip, with an 
open flask tubulated near the bottom. The rubber tube 
must be of such a length that the flask may conveniently be 
placed upon a board located above the frame. The gradu- 
ated tube is connected, by means 
of a tube provided on the side Fig- 6. 

Avith a glass cock, having a glass 
bulb which receives the carbonic 
acid, so that the latter cannot be 
absorbed by the water in the 
graduated tube. With the lower 
end of this glass bulb is con- 
nected, by means of a rubber 
tube, the developing vessel, 
which consists of a glass flask 
with a wide neck, in which accu- 
rately fits a rubber cork pro- 
vided with a tube. 

In using the apparatus the 
glass flask filled witli water is 
set upon the board above the 
frame, and the glass cock to the 
right being opened, both tubes 
are allowed to run full to above 




68 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

the graduation. The flask is then taken down, and 
by carefully opening the clip, water is allowed to flow 
off until the lower meniscus of the water level in 
the graduated tube sits exactly upon the mark. 
In both the communicating tubes the water will be 
at the same level. In order to have always ap- 
proximately the same tension of aqueous vapor, the 
developing flask is, shortly before use, rinsed out with 
concentrated comuion salt solution. Theu by means of 
a pipette 20 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (1 
part concentrated hydrochloric acid to 3 water) are 
introduced. Now place, with the assistance of straight 
crucible-tongs, a small porcelain crucible containing 
about four to eight grammes of the substance to be ex- 
amined in the hydrochloric acid, and firmly put the 
rubber cork into the neck of the flask, without, however, 
touching the developing space with the warm hand. 
Now close the glass cock, and by opening the clip allow 
about 20 cubic centimeters of water to run off, as other- 
wise, in consequence of the violent evolution of carbonic 
acid in the beginning of the operation, water would be 
thrown from the tube to the rio;ht. After the discharo;e 
of the 20 cubic centimeters of water, the level in the 
tube to the right will be somewhat lower, but will 
remain constant at one point. Should this not bethe 
case, the apparatus leaks somewhere. Now, grasp with 
the left hand the clip, and, with the right the develop- 
ing flask so that the thumb lies on the left of the neck, 
the index-finger upon the top of the rubber cork, and 
the middle finger on the right of the neck. In this 
manner the vessel can be very firndy held, and heating 
bv the hand is avoided. Incline the flask until the 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-COMSTITUENTS. 59 

porcelain crucible tumbles over and then impart a 
circular motion to tlie flask. During the evolution of 
carbonic acid a quantity of water, corresponding to the 
sinking of the level in the tube to the right, is discharged 
by opening the clip. Shaking of the developing vessel 
is continued until the level in the tube to the right 
remains constant. The apparatus is now allowed to 
stand quietly for ten minutes, then again shaken, and, 
Avhen the water is at the same level in all the tubes, the 
number of centimeters of carbonic acid is read off. 
AVith due regard to the temperature and the height of 
the barometer, the weight of the carbonic acid or of the 
calcium carbonate corresponding to it, is calculated to R. 
Finkener's tables ([)p. 60 and 61), in which the weight of 
a cubic centimeter of carbonic acid at different tempera- 
tures and barometer heights is given in one-thousandths 
milligrammes. In this figure is included the error arising 
from measuring the gas in a moist state, and from the 
absorption of a quantity of carbonic acid by the hydro- 
chloric acid of the developing vessel. 



60 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



Thermometer (Centigrade). 


Barometer. 


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DETEEMINATION OF THE SOTL-CO:SBTITUENTS. 61 



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62 



THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 



Fijr. 7. 



6. Ddcrmhudion of tJic carbonic acid by tceighing from 
the loss. — This method consists in expelling, in a weighed 
apparatus, tlie carbonic acid bv dilute acids, again weigh- 
ing the api^aratus and calculating the content of carbonic 
acid in the substance from the loss in 
weight. An apparatus very suitable 
for this purpose is Mohr's, modified by 
Laufer and "NYahnschaife, Fig. 7. It 
consists of a small glass flask with a 
thin bottom and short wide neck, which 
serves for the rccejjtion of the sample 
of soil to be examined. The finely pul- 
verized material is dried by spreading 
it out upon a watch crystal and placing 
it in a drying chamber heated to 212° 
F. for one hour. It is then brought hot 
into a small glass tube also dried out at 
212° F., and the latter closed with a 
cork. After cooling, the tube together 
with the cork is weighed, two or three grammes of the 
substance are poured into the glass flask, and the tube 
is ao;ain weighed. The difference between the two 
weighings corresponds to the weight of the initial sub- 
stance dried at 212° F. In the neck of the glass flask 
a hollow glass stopper provided with two tubulures is her- 
metically ground in. In the tubulures two glass tubes of 
different forms are also ground in. One tube is bent at a 
right angle, and then again upwards and widens above the 
second bend. It serves for the reception of calcium 
chloride, and is filled by first ])ushing in loosely a small 
cotton plug, placing upon the latter a layer of pieces of 
calcium chloride the size of pin-heads, then introducing 




DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. G3 

another cotton ping and finally closing it with the glass 
stopper provided with two tnbnlnres. Over the end of 
the tnbe is drawn a small piece of rnbber tube, in the 
top of which a small glass rod is pushed. The other 
tnbe reaches nearly to the bottom of the vessel, and near 
the top it is provided with a glass cock for the admission 
of the acid into the apparatus. Above, the tube expands 
pear-shaped for the reception of the acid, and is closed 
in the same manner as the other tube by a glass stopper, 
rubber tube, and glass rod. The filling with dilute acid 
(1 part concentrated acid and 10 parts water) is effected 
by immersing the pear-shaped tube inverted in the acid, 
and, with the glass cock open, sucking the acid up until 
the pear-shaped receptacle is nearly filled. The cock is 
then closed, the tubulure dried with blotting-paper, and 
the rubber tube placed over it. Some distilled water is 
poured over the material in the flask. When all the 
tubes have been firmly placed in position, the apparatus 
is wiped off with a dry piece of leather, and, after stand- 
ing for half an hour, weighed. The rubber tubes are 
then removed, and the acid is allowed to run, drop by 
drop, into the flask. The carbonic acid having been ex- 
pelled, the bottom of the flask is heated with a very 
small flame by placing the flask upon an asbestos plate, 
whereby the acid pipe must remain closed. After heat- 
ing nearly to boiling, so that the carbonic acid absorbed 
by the water is expelled, allow the apparatus to cool, 
and then, in order to remove all the carbonic acid, draw 
a slow current of air through the apparatus by connect- 
ing the calcium chloride tube with an aspirator [E, Fig. 
8). Now close the apparatus with the rubber tubes, let 
it stand for half an hour in the weighing-room, so that 



64 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

it again acquires the temperature of tlie latter; lift, be- 
fore Aveighing, the rubber tube on the calcium chloride 
tube for the equalization of the air pressure, and weigh 
after replacing the rubber tube. By duly observing all 
precautionary measures and paying special attention 
that in heating, the fluid is not brought to the boiling 
point, the carbonic acid can, by this method, be accu- 
rately determined to ^-^ per cent. 

c. Determination of the carbonic acid by direct urif/h- 
ing. — This mode of determination consists in expelling 
the carbonic acid by hydrochloric acid and catching it 
in an absorption-apparatus which can be weighed. This 
method is used whenever the carbonic acid, even in very 
small quantities, is to be determined as accurately as 
possible. 

R. Finkener's apparatus, shown at Fig. 8, is very 
suitable for the purpose. Of the substance dried at 
212° y., 0.5 to 2 grammes are weighed out and brought 
into a flask upon the neck, a, of which sits a tube 
secured to the flask by two copper wire rings connected 
by spirals. On one side the tube has an ascending joint, 
upon the end, c, of which sits the calcium chloride tube. 
The latter is 93 centimeters long, and has an ascending 
and a descending leg, cd and de, the latter of which is 
only filled with calcium chloride, while the former serves 
for the reception and condensation of the aqueous vapors 
escaping in boiling. The calcium chloride tube is also 
secured to the glass joint by means of rings and spirals. 
Above the glass joint is a glass stop-cock, B, and over 
it a funnel in the bottom, b, of which a knee-shaped 
tube is ground in. Below the glass stop-cock the funnel 
tube narrows and reaches nearly to the bottom of the 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 65 

flask where it is bent upwards, so tliat during the evolu- 
tion of carbonic acid no bubbles can ascend in it. The 
end of the calcium chloride tube is connected by means 
of rubber tubing with a small Geissler potash-apparatus, 




Fig. 9. 




D, which is more plainly shown in Fig. 9. It is filled 
with caustic potash solution (1 part caustic potash to 2 
parts water). The small wash bottles of this apparatus 
are filled three-quarters full by providing the upper end 
5 



b'6 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

of the tube with a riibl)cr tubing dipping in the caustic 
potash solution, and sucking with the mouth on the tube 
end of the calcium chloride tube. The wash bottles 
having been tilled, tlie rubber tubing is removed and 
the tube-end thoroughly cleansed with blotting-paper. 
The calcium chloride tube is then filled, and the a])pa- 
ratus, after having been wiped with a piece of Icatlier 
and closed with rubber tubing, is placed for some time 
in the balance in order to acquire* the temperature of the 
weio'liinjx-room. 

Some distilled water is tlien poured over the material 
in the flask, and after inserting the glass tube bent at 
a right angle in the funnel, a current of air previously 
freed from its carbonic acid in a potash wash bottle {A, 
Fig. 8), is conducted through the apparatus. For the 
conduction of the air it is best to use a small Bunsen 
water air-pump, the current of air being regulated by 
inserting the apparatus, E, seen in the illustration. 
This apparatus consists of an ordinary glass flask with 
a doubly perforated rubber cork. In the cork sit two 
glass tubes, the lower end of one of which is drawn out 
to a fine point, and dips about two centimeters deep into 
the w^ater in the flask. The other tube, which is even 
with the lower surface of the cork, is in direct communi- 
cation with the air-pump, and is provided with a glass 
stop-cock, the boring on the mouth of which is laterally 
indented, so that, even with a strong air pressure, small 
air bubbles can, at determined intervals, be passed 
througli the fluid in the flask. After sucking through 
about three times as much air as the apparatus contains, 
the tube is removed from the funnel, and, afl:er closing 
the glass stop-cock, B, the funnel is filled with dihite 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 67 

hydrochloric acid (1 part acid to 10 parts water). The 
weighed Geissler potash-apparatus is then connected 
with the long calcium chloride tube and the acid allowed 
to run, drop by drop, into the flask. When evolution 
has somewhat abated, a very small flame is brought 
under the apparatus, while a slow current of air is passed 
through it. The fluid is now heated to just below the 
boiling point, when the flame is removed and the current 
of air somewhat augmented. The operation is finished 
when three times the volume of air which the apparatus 
contains is sucked through it. The potash apparatus 
closed at both ends with rubber tubing is allowed to 
stand half an hour in the balance and is then weighed, 
after beiug wiped with a piece of leather and removing 
the frictional electricity thereby produced with a metallic 
brush. 

If metallic sulphides are jjresent in the soil, which 
are decomposed by the acid and yield sulphuretted 
hydrogen, add first some chloride of mercury to the 
fluid. If, with the use of hydrochloric acid, chlorine 
should be evolved, which may happen in the presence of 
oxides of manganese, first let some concentrated stannous 
chloride solution run into the flask. 

After using the apparatus the condensed water in the 
ascending portion of the calcium chloride tube is re- 
moved by means of a flame, and the tube closed on both 
ends. By this means it can be used for a long time 
without the necessity of refilling it. 

d. Determination of the carbonate of calcium and 
magnesium by boiling loith ammonium nitrate. — If it is 
necessary to determine the proportion of the carbonates 
of calcium and magnesium, the following method, first 



68 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

used by E. Laiifer, can be recommended. Bring one or 
two grammes of the material, pulverized as finely as 
possible and dried at 212° F., into a beaker-glass and 
pour 20 cubic centimeters of completely saturated am- 
monium nitrate solution over them. After covering the 
beaker-glass with a watch crystal, boil the fluid for half 
an hour, and, in case the salt should separate by the 
evaporation of the Avater, add some hot water. Am- 
monium nitrate possesses the proj^erty of converting the 
carbonates of calcium and magnesium into soluble 
nitrates, while the ammonium carbonate formed thereby 
is decomposed by boiling and escapes. 

C«(A^03)2 4- .%(A03)24-2(C03[A//,],). 

The soil is then allowed to'settle, and the supernatant 
hot solution decanted otf through a filter by placing the 
funnel in a copper hot-water funnel. Fig. 10, heated to 
212° F., so that during filtration the ammonium nitrate 
cannot separate and clog uj) the funnel. The boiling 
with the solution is repeated twice ; the material in the 
glass is then washed with somewhat more dilute am- 
monium nitrate solution and the washing fluid also 
poured through the filter. In case the material is not to 
be further used, it is unnecessary to bring it entirely 
upon the filter. Washing with pure distilled water 
cannot be done, as otherwise the fluid running off is 
rendered turbid by the fine particles of soil which pass 
through the filter. Washing is finished when a drop 
running off* from the filter leaves no perceptible residue 
when evaporated upon a platinum sheet. 

The filtrate strono-lv diluted with water is heated to 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUEXTS. 



69 



boiling, compounded with a few drops of ammonia and 
the lime precipitated with ammonium oxalate. After 
standing for twelve hours the white precipitate of calcium 




oxalate has completely settled. The supernatant fluid 
is then poured off through a filter ; the precipitate is 
washed by several times decanting it with hot water in 
the beaker-glass and finally brought upon the filter. 
The portions of the precipitate adhering to the glass are 
removed with a glass rod over the lower end of which a 
piece of black rubber tubing has been drawn. The 
filter is now washed out with hot water, with the aid of 
the wash bottle. The operation is finished when a drop 



70 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



running oft' leaves no pcreeptible residue wlien evaporated 
upon a platinum sheet. 

The oxalate of lime is dried in the drying stove (Fig. 
12), at 212° F., then detached from the filter and brought 
into a weighed platimmi crucible, while the filter is 




folded together and incinerated upon the lid of the 
crucible. The ash is then brought into the platinum 
crucible, which is best effected with the aid of a pencil, 
and, after ])lacing the lid upon the crucible, the latter is 
gradually brought to ignition. In order to comjiletely 
convert the calcium carbonate formed by gentle igniting 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 71 

into calcium oxide, it is necessary to subject the crucible 
for ten minutes to a strong beat over a blast-lamp (Fig. 
11). Before weighing, cool the hot crucible and contents 
in a desiccator. Caustic lime being hygroscopic, weigh- 
ing must be effected as rapidly as possible. Generally 
speaking, it is best to weigh all hygroscopic substances 
twice, by allowing the weights of the first weighing to 
remain in the pan of the balance, then again heating the 
crucible and its contents, and again weighing after cool- 
ing in the desiccator. Since the difference amounts at 
the utmost to from one to two milligrammes, the weight 
can very rapidly be determined by two or three oscilla- 
tions of the beam of the balance. To find the corre- 
sponding quantity of calcium carbonate, multiply the 
number of weighed grammes of calcium oxide with the 
factor 1.786. 

The filtrate from the lime-precipitate is evaporated to 
about half its volume in a platinum dish, then brought 
into a beaker-glass and solution of sodium phosphate 
added. Then add concentrated ammonia sufficient to 
amount to one-third of the entire solution. With a 
moderate heat (77° to 86° F.), a white crystalline pre- 
cipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium phosphate = 
POJfgNH^ + <oHfi is separated inside of twenty-four 
hours. The precipitate is filtered off and washed out 
with a cold mixture of one part of concentrated ammonia 
and three parts of water. Before igniting in a porcelain 
crucible, the dried precipitate is detached as much as 
possible from the filter, and the latter incinerated by 
itself. Then add the ash to the contents of the crucible 
and ignite over the blast-lamp. If, after igniting, the 
precipitate should be colored gray or black by uuburnt 



72 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

coal, moisten it by allowing a drop of nitric acid to fall 
upon it, place the lid upon the crucible and heat the 
lattergently at first, and, afterwards, over the blast-lamp. 
By the action of the heat the ammonium magnesium 
phosphate is transformed into magnesium pyrophosphate 
= M(j^P^O.j. Cool the crucible and contents in a desic- 
cator and weigh. The increase in the weight of the 
crucible represents the weight of the magnesia pyrophos- 
phate; this multiplied by 0.757 will give the equivalent 
quantity of magnesium carbonate. 

B. Determination of the humus substances. — By humus 
are understood all the substances originating from the 
decomposition of plant-remains, in which carbon appears 
in organic combination. 

With a full access of air and at an ordinary tempera- 
ture, plant-remains are decomposed into a pale brown or 
dark brown substance, which dissolves with a brown 
color in alkalies and forms alkaline humates. The re- 
action of this humus is neutral. 

If the decomposition of the })lant-remains takes place 
under water, hence, without the access of air, a gray- 
black mass is formed, which in a fresh state is muddy, 
but in a dry state pulverulent. On account of its acid 
reaction this mass is called acid humus (gein). 

If the decomposition of plant-remains begins at first 
with the full access of air and at an ordinary tempera- 
ture, but is afterwards continued under water Mithout 
the access of air, the humus substance richest in carbon, 
which is known as jjcat, is formed. 

Between these different products of decomposition are 
found gradual transitions into each other, so that the 
humus substances represent no fixed chemical combina- 



DETERMI]SATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 73 

tious. For agriculture, it is first of all of importance, 
to know the distribution of the humus substance in the 
soil and its reaction. The distribution and the degree of 
decomposition are learned from mechanical analysis by a 
microscopic examination of the various products of 
elutriation. The reaction is best learned by laying a 
moist sample of soil upon blue litmus-paper and observ- 
ing whether the test paper is more or less strongly 
reddened. Since, however, the free carbonic acid present 
in the soil may also redden the paper, in making the 
experiment, the latter has to be dried and examined as 
to whether the reddening remains visible after drying. 
Sour humus soils are very detrimental to cultivation. 

In regard to the quantitative determination of the 
humus substances, their content of carbon can, with ap- 
proximate accuracy, be determined by Knop's method. 
If, hoMTver, it is to be determined with the greatest 
accuracy possible, combustion, customary in elementary 
analysis, has to be employed. With some soils a guide 
forjudging the content of humus is already obtained by 
determining the loss in igniting. 

a. Knop's method for the determination of humus. — 
Knop's method is based upon the conversion of the car- 
bon contained ,in the humus by oxidation with chromic 
acid into caiJjonic acid,.'€fnd collecting the latter in a 
weighable absorption-apparatus. 

Spread about two to ten grammes of fine soil (less 
than two millimeters in diameter) of the substance to be 
examined upon a watch crystal and dry it for at least 
one hour at 212° F. in a drying chamber. The drying 
chamber shown at Fig. 1 2 has been devised by Dr. R. 
Muencke, of Berlin, and can be highly recommended 



74 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



i'ov drying at a constant temperature. The box of" 
strong sheet-iron is jirovided with double walls, so that 
the hot gases of" conibnstion in the interspace between 




the walls surround the entire box on all sides, with tlic 
exception of the door, Mhich is also double- walled. 
The outside of the box is surrounded with a jacket of 
asbestos card-board. The gases of combustion escape 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 75 

through apertures in the top of tlie box, which can be 
more or less opened by a slide. The two tubes serve 
for the reception of a thermometer and a heat regu- 
lator. A glass plate provided with two holes is placed 
in the interior immediately under the top of the box. 
The heating which is very uniform is effected by means 
of a gas-spiral with twenty small flames, which can be 
regulated by two screws. 

The temperature of 212° F. should never be ex- 
ceeded since, already, at 230° F., the water distilling from 
the humus sometimes shoM^s a brownish color which 
indicates decomposition. Together with the substance a 
weighing-flask is placed in the drying-chamber, the air- 
tight ground-in stopper of the flask being however first 
removed. When the substance is dry, it is brought hot 
into the weighing-flask, and, after closing the latter with 
the stopper, it is allowed to cool in the desiccator. It is 
then weighed, and one to ten grammes of the substance, 
according to its greater or smaller content of humus, are 
carefully, without scattering any dust, brought into a 
small glass flask with a wide neck, in which oxidation 
of the humus substance is to be carried on. For this 
purpose the apparatus for the determination of carbonic 
acid. Fig. 8, may be used. If, however, such an appa- 
ratus is not at hand, place in the glass flask a doubly 
perforated rubber cork. Through one of the perfora- 
tions passes a glass tube somewhat bent on the bottom 
and closed above with a small piece of a glass rod in 
rubber tubing. Through the other perforation passes 
the calcium chloride tube which is bent above the cork 
and otherwise has the same shape as described under 
Fig. 8. In the beginning of the operation it is best not 



76 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

to dip the straight tube into the fluid, as otherwise it may 
easily clog up below by the separated chromic acid. 

Pour over the weighed substance in the flask 20 to 30 
cubic centimeters of distilled water, and add 30 to 40 
cubic centimeters of concentrated sulphuric acid, which 
is best gradually introduced through a funnel. On the 
acid mixing with the water strong heating takes place, 
so that the free carbonic acid present in the soil, as well 
as that fixed on lime, is completely expelled. If much 
calcium carbonate is present, as is, for instance, the case 
with moor-marls, the sulphuric acid must be very gradu- 
ally introduced, with frequent cooling of the vessel, as 
otherwise the fluid might foam over. Before commence- 
ment of oxidation the flask is allowed to completely cool 
off and the air over the fluid sucked off to remove the 
last traces of carbonic acid. 

Since plant-remains not entirely converted into humus 
frequently occur in soils, and cannot be well sorted 
out, the substance is allowed to remain in contact 
with the sulphuric acid for some days. Carbonization 
of the organic remains now takes place, and oxidation 
with chromic acid is effected more rapidly and uni- 
formly. 

After connecting the previously weighed Geissler ab- 
sorption-apparatus (Fig. 9), with the calcium chloride 
tube, 10 to 15 grammes of pulverized potassium bichro- 
mate are quickly poured upon the substance through a 
paper tube inserted in the flask, and the apparatus is 
immediately closed. To avoid errors, which might 
originate from the fluid spurting against the rubber cork 
in case of a very violent evolution of carbonic acid, it is 
best to cover the lower side of the cork with thin 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 77 

platinum sheet. A very small flame is now brought 
under the flask and the evolution of carbonic acid 
beginning with the heating is so regulated that one 
bubble per second passes through the Geissler apparatus. 
If evolution becomes more vigorous, moderate the 
flame, and if it abates, heat more strongly. 

By the sulphuric acid, the potassium bichromate is 
decomposed as follows: Cr^O-K^ + H^SO^ = 2(Cr03) + 
KgSO^ + HjO. By its oxygen the free chromic acid 
oxidizes the carbon of the humus substances to carbonic 
acid. An excess of sulphuric acid being always present, 
chrome-alum (S04)2CrK 4- I2H2O) is generally formed 
in the fluid. The heating is increased to boiling; until a 
perceptible evolution of carbonic acid no longer takes 
place. Finally, the straight glass tube is dipped in the 
fluid and connected with a potash wash bottle, while a 
slow current of air is sucked through the entire appa- 
ratus. The flame is now removed, and, for the rest, the 
operation carried on as given under " determination of 
carbonic acid by direct weighing." 

To approximately calculate from the carbonic acid 
found, the quantity of humus free from water and 
nitrogen, it has been agreed to take 58 per cent, as the 
average content of carbon in the humus no matter in 
which form it may occur in the soil. Hence, in order 
to find the content of humus, the quantity of carbonic 
acid found need only be multiplied by the factor 0.471. 

Since errors may originate in the presence of ferrous 
sulphide by the development of small quantities of sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, or in the presence of chlorides, by 
escaping hydrochloric acid gas, it is recommended to 
insert between the calcium chloride tube and the Geissler 



78 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

apparatus a U-t"l>e. The latter is filled with pieces of 
pumice previously saturated with blue vitriol and heated 
until the latter is dehydrated. By this means the sul- 
phuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid gas are re- 
tained. 

b. Determination of the carbon of the humus substances 
by elementary analysis. — The object of the method to be 
discussed here, which was first mentioned by Liebig, is to 
burn the carbon to carbonic acid by igniting together 
"with cupric oxide. Since, however, the humus substances 
of the soil always contain nitrogen which, by this mode 
of combustion, is converted partially into nitrous gas and 
nitrous acid, the method is accordingly modified. 

To effect this analysis by combustion, a hard Bohemian 
glass tube from 50 to 55 centimeters long is used. After 
being thoroughly cleansed, one end is drawn out and 
turned over in the shape of a beak, while the other end 
is fused together. The tube is heated upon the sand 
bath, and, after removing the air contained in it by 
sucking with a glass tube, it is filled half full with pure, 
freshly ignited and still warm cupric oxide, introduced 
through a previously heated metallic funnel, care being 
had that none of the cupric oxide reaches the beak- 
shaped portion. This is best prevented by loosely 
inserting, before filling, a cork of pure asbestos. Now 
pour some warm cupric oxide into a heated porcelain 
mortar and add 0.5 to 10 grammes of the finely pulve- 
rized fine soil, the quantity depending on the larger or 
smaller content of humus. The cupric oxide is 
intimately combined with the fine soil and the mixture 
also brought into the tube. Any particles adhering to 
the mortar are removed by rubbing them together with 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 79 

some fresh cupric oxide aud adding this mixture to the 
other in the tube. Suppose the whole occupies a space 
of 5 centimeters in the tube. Then add 5 centimeters 
more of cupric oxide ; upon this follows a layer of 10 
to 12 bright, fine copper wire shavings or a copper wire 
spiral of the same length. It is still better to use 
spirals of very fine silver wire, which, besides completely 
reducing the nitrous gas, also retain any chlorine present 
by the formation of silver chloride. The tube having 
been filled, rap repeatedly with it lengthAvise upon a 
table so that a channel is formed on top of the contents 
through which the gases of combustion can escape. The 
tube thus filled is provided with a calcium chloride tube 
which is joined by a forked glass tube. One end of this 
tube is connected with a water air-pump and the other 
provided with rubber tubing and a clip. While the 
combustion tube is being pumped out, dried air is allowed 
to enter by means of the clip through the calcium 
chloride tube, so that all moisture is thereby removed. 

The tube thus prepared is placed in a combustion 
furnace (Fig. 13), the empty space, about five centimeters 
long, being allowed to project from the furnace, while 
the perforated rubber cork closing the tube is protected 
by a piece of asbestos card-board. The tube is connected 
to a previously weiglied calcium chloride tube and the 
latter to the weighed Geissler potash-apparatus also, 
provided with a calcium chloride tube. 

Combustion should be conducted as slowly as possible. 
After the whole arrangement has been found perfectly 
air-tight, the front and back parts of the tube are heated, 
and, when red-hot, the portion of the tube containing 
the substance is gradually heated, the heat being so 



80 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOII^. 



roiiiilatod that one bubble per second passes through the 
potash-apparatus. 

The operation is finished as soon as Avitli strong- heat- 
ing the potasli sohition begins to pass back into the bidb 
nearest to the apparatus. The extreme point of the tube 

FiR. 13. 




is then broken oft' and the main gas-cock ck>sed. The 
bent-up portion of the tube must not be too strongly heated 
so that it can be connected by means of a rubber tube 
Avith a potash wash-bottle. A calcium chloride tube is 
inserted between the combustion tube and the j)otash 
■svash-bottle, so that no moisture from the potash solution 
can reach the front caleium chloride tube. .Vfter con- 
necting the calcium chloride tube of the Geissler jiotash- 
apparatus with the aspirator described under "determina- 
tion of carbonic acid," a slow current of air is allowed 



DETERMIXATIOX OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 81 

to pass through the combustion tube in order to expel 
all the carbonic acid from it. 

After finishing the operation, the Geissler potash 
apparatus and the U-tube of the calcium chloride tube 
are brought into the weighing-room and allowed to stand 
for half an hour to acquire the temperature of the room 
before weighing them separately. The water -weighed 
in the U-tube contains the entire hydrogen, that of the 
humus substances as well as that fixed to the other soil 
constituents. 

To calculate, from the quantity of carbonic acid ab- 
sorbed by the Geissler potash apparatus, the content of 
carbon in the soil, multiply it with the factor 0.273. 
If, however, the humus substance is to be determined, 
multiply the weighed carbonic acid by the factor 0.471. 

c. Determination of the loss by ignition. — If the sample 
of soil to be examined contains no clay, or only a very 
small quantity of it, the humus can be approximately 
ascertained by determining the loss by ignition. 

The fine soil dried continuously at 212° F. is poured 
into a previously weighed porcelain crucible, and the 
latter again weighed. Now heat the crucible very 
gradually by placing it obliquely upon a triangle and 
advancing it from the outer edge towards the small flame 
of a Bunsen burner. Then heat gradually after placing 
the lid upon the crucible, and regulate the combustion 
of the substance so that no small particles can be carried 
away by the draught. When combustion of the humus 
is complete, accelerate entire incineration by stirring 
with a stout platinum wire, the lower end of which has, 
by hammering upon an anvil, been given the shape of a 
spatula. 



82 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

For the determination of loss by ignition Knoji nscs 
two grammes of fine earth, mixes the rcsidne from 
ignition with pure pulverulent oxalic acid and gradually 
raises the temperature until the oxalic acid just begins to 
decompose. This operation is repeated with one-half 
the quantity of oxalic acid until the crucible, after cool- 
ing and weighing, shows a constant weight. The 
crucible must not be too strongly heated, as otherwise a 
portion of the carbonic acid regenerated by the oxalic 
acid is again expelled. 

According to another metiiod, the residue from 
ignition is repeatedly moistened with ammonium carbon- 
ate and slightly ignited to regenerate the alkaline earths 
present in small quantity, then dried at 302° F., and, 
after cooling in the desiccator, weighed. 

If, however, larger quantities of the carbonates of 
calcium and magnesium are present, and heating has 
been carried on to a higher degree in order to destroy 
all organic substances, the oxides of calcium and mag- 
nesium cannot be regenerated, since, by the intimate 
mixture of the alkaline earths with dust-like silica, 
silicates are formed which cannot be reconverted into 
carbonates. In such a case, it is advisable to carefully 
bring the residue from ignition into a platinum crucible 
and heat the latter until all the carbonic acid is expelled 
and fusible calcium silicate has been formed. The car- 
bonic acid of the initial substance is determined in a 
special sample and deducted from the loss by ignition. 
The vesicular slag is best removed from the platinum 
crucible by dissolving it in fluoric acid. 

C. JDdcnnination of the content of clay. — Formerly 
the content of clay was frequently determined by elutriat- 



DETEEMIXATIOX OF THE SOIL-COXSTITUENTS. 83 

ing the finest portion from the soil and designating this 
as clay. More accurate chemical investigations have, 
however, shown that a considerable quantity of quartz- 
flour is admixed with the finest portions, so that the 
content of clay determined by elutriation was always 
too high. 

The object is better attained by combining for the de- 
termination of the clay, the silt-analysis with a chemical 
examination. It has been shown- that with an elutriat- 
ing velocity of 0.2 millimeter the greater quantity of 
clay contained in the soil is elutriated, and with a velocity 
of 2 millimeters, the entire quantity, provided the sub- 
stance is previously thoroughly loosened by boiling. 
Hence, in investigating soils w'ith the intention of 
simultaneously determining the clay, elutriation will 
have to be effected from the beginning with distilled 
water in order to obtain the products of elutriation at 
0.2 and 2.0 millimeters per second as pure as possible. 
If the clay alone is to be determined, it is best to at 
once elutriate the soil at 2.0 millimeters velocity. Soils 
containing only small quantities of coarse material may 
be pulverized in an agate mortar, and, without previous 
elutriation, be directly used for the determination of clay. 
If, however, in the mechanical analysis, the products of 
elutriation at 0.2 and 2.0 millimeters' velocity have been 
separated, they are, after drying and weighing, again 
combined and very carefully mixed in a dish. 

Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube. — 
This method of the determination of clay is based upon 
the property of pure clay or kaolin dissolving in hot 
sulphuric acid, while feldspars and quartz are not de- 
composed. In order that the action of the sulphuric 



84 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

acid may be as uniform as possible, disintegration is best 
effected in a closed glass tube. 

For this purpose a hard Bohemian glass tube about 
30 centimeters long, without the neck, is used. One end 
of the tube is drawn out to a capillary Avhich is thickened 
by fusion. The other end is also drawn out so that a 
neck is formed, which must, however, be wide enough 
for the convenient insertion of the weighing-tube. 
Before use, the tube is thoroughly boiled with a(|ua 
regia, rinsed with distilled water and dried. 

For the execution of the analysis, 1 or 2 grammes of 
the finely pulverized substance are continuously dried at 
212° F. and brought hot into a lono; thin weiQ;hino:-tul)e 
closed with a cork. After cooling, the substance is 
poured into the Boliemian glass tube by pushing the 
weighing-tube down as far as possible so as to prevent 
any of the substance from adhering to the neck. The 
weighing-tube is then again weighed. 

By means of a pipette 20 cubic centimeters of dilute 
sulphuric acid (1 volume of concentrated acid to 5 
volumes of water) are now brought into the Bohemian 
glass tube and the latter closed bv drawing; out the 
neck. 

Ifthesubstanceeontainscarbonateof lime, the sulpluiric 
acid has to be added very gradually, and the tube, 
before closing it, must be placed in boiling Mater, so 
that all the carbonic acid can escape. 

The closed glass tubes are now placed in a tul>ular 
furnace (Fig. 14), so arranged that it will hold four 
tubes. They are heated for six hours at 248° F., and 
when perfectly cold, are ojiened by drawing a ring 
around them with a diamond, and holding the point of a 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 85 

recl-hot glass rod against the mark. The glass breaks 
off smoothly, and the contents can be conveniently 
emptied into a beaker-glass with the aid of a wash- 
bottle. The fluid is strongly diluted, and, in the 




presence of much calcium carbonate, compounded with 
some hydrochloric acid to dissolve the gypsum formed ; 
it is then covered with a watch crystal and heated to 
boiling. After allowing the substance to settle, the 
fluid is decanted off through a filter. Finally, the un- 
dissolved substance is also brought upon the filter and 
the latter washed out M'ith hot distilled water until a 
drop running oif from the funnel shows no perceptible 
turbidity when compounded with barium chloride 
solution. 

To oxidize the ferrous oxide the filtrate is compounded 



SG THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

with bromine water, and, after covering it with a watch 
crystal, boiled nntil the yellow coloring disappears and 
an odor of bromine is no longer perceptible. 

The flame is now removed, and the fluid, being con- 
stantly stirred with a glass rod, is compounded with 
dilute ammonia until it shows a slight ammoniacal odor, 
and a piece of red litmus-paper thrown in acquires a 
permanent blue color. The precipitate formed consists 
of aluminium and ferric hydrate = Al(OH)3 + Fe- 
(011)3. If too much ammonia has been added, the 
larger portion of it has to be expelled by heating the 
fluid for some time, the aluminium hydrate being some- 
what soluble in an excess of ammonia. 

Now, pour the fluid boiling hot, and without allowing 
the precipitate to settle, through a filter so arranged that 
filtration will be rapidly effected. The filter should only 
be filled with fluid up to, at the utmost, one centimeter 
from the edge, as otherwise the washing out of the pre- 
cipitate is very difficult. In filtering, the funnel should 
not be allowed to become entirely empty, as otherwise 
the gelatinous precipitate fixes itself firmly to the paper, 
clogging it up. After the precipitate has been trans- 
ferred from the beaker-glass to the filter and the particles 
adhering to the glass removed with a feather, the pre- 
cipitate is washed with hot water with the aid of a wash- 
bottle, until a drop running off shows no turbidity when 
com])oun(led with barium chloride solution. 

The precipitate of /'err /e o.vide and ahiininta is con- 
tinuously dried in the drying-chamber at 212° F., 
whereby it shrinks together so much that it can be 
almost com])letely detached from the filter. Now lay a 
sheet of white paper upon the table, place upon it a 



DETERMINATIOX OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 87 

weighed platinum crucible aud bring the precipitate into 
the latter by rubbing the interior sides of the paper 
against each other. Any scattering grains fall upon the 
paper and are also brought into the crucible. The pre- 
cipitate being detached as much as possible from the 
filter, the latter is folded together, wrapped round with 
thin platinum wire and burnt in the point of the flame 
of a Bunsen burner. When the coal of the filter is 
completely burnt, add the ash to the precipitate in the 
crucible and strongly ignite the latter for some time, 
commencing however with a moderate heat, the crucible 
being covered with the lid. Then allow the crucible 
and its contents to cool in the desiccator, and weigh as 
rapidly as possible, since both the ferric oxide and 
aluminia are quite hygroscopic. After deducting the 
filter-ash, the quantity of ferric oxide and alumina = 
AlgOg + FcgOg dissolved by sulphuric acid is found. 

Separation of the ferrie oxide from the alumina, a. 
Determination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration 
ivith potassium permanganate solution. — The ignited and 
weighed precipitate of ferric oxide aud alumina is care- 
fully, without scattering anything, poured from the 
platinum crucible into a small glass flask with a long 
neck. The particles adhering to the crucible are de- 
tached with a feather and w^ashed by means of a wash- 
bottle into the flask. Add to the water about an equal 
volume of pure hydrochloric acid and place the flask 
obliquely inclined upon the sand bath, which is suf- 
ficiently heated to bring the fluid to boiling. The 
oblique inclination of the neck of the flask is necessary 
to avoid loss by squirting in consequence of the bump- 
ing of the fluid during boiling. If, inside of a few 



88 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

hours, the precipitate is not entirely dissolved, add to the 
strongly evaporated fluid a mixture of hydrochloric acid 
and water, and heat again until the entire precipitate is 
dissolved. If a few white flakes shoukl remain, they 
consist mostly of silica or titanic acid ; the quantity is, 
however, generally so small that no notice need be taken 
of them. When the solution in the flask is cold, com- 
pound it with dilute sulphuric acid, again place the flask 
in an oblique position on the sand-bath and heat, in 
order to expel the hydrochloric acid, and convert the 
chlorides of iron and alumina into sulphates, until the 
fluid is quite evaporated and clear as water. Dilute the 
cold solution with water, and compound it again with 
pure dilute sulphuric acid. 

In order to dissolve the iron in the ignited precipitate 
of iron and alumina, another method may be used, 
which, however, has the disadvantage that the substance 
has to be previously powdered in an agate mortar, 
whereby sligiit particles may readily be lost, again 
ignited in the platinum crucible and weighed. The 
powder is then compounded with ten times its quantity 
of previously fused potassium bisulphate and heated in 
the covered platinum crucible until the powder is com- 
pletely dissolved. After cooling, the melt is dissolved 
with hot water and compounded in a boiling flask with 
pure dilute sulphuric acid. 

Now add to the iron solution, obtained by either one 
of the two methods, pure granulated zinc, and j)lac-e a 
small funnel upon the boiling flask. Should the evolu- 
tion of hydrogen, which now takes place, be not suf- 
ficiently vigorous, it may be promoted by dipping the 
point of a glass rod in platinum chloride and after 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 89 

allowing the drop adhering to it to drop off, injecting 
what remains on the rod into the flask by means of the 
wash-bottle. A vigorous evolution of hydrogen will at 
once commence. Hydrogen in a nascent state possesses^ 
as is well known, the property of converting ferric 
oxides into ferrous oxides, or, according to the more 
modern conception, of transforming the trivalent into 
bivalent iron. 

The reduction of the solution may also be i)romoted 
by placing the flask on a moderately heated sand-bath. 
When evolution of hydrogen has vigorously continued 
for about one hour, the solution is tested as to the com- 
plete reduction of the iron. This is efiected by taking, 
by means of a glass rod, a drop of the fluid from the 
flask and allowing it to run upon a white porcelain plate 
into a drop of freshly prepared, not too concentrated 
potassium sulphocyanate solution. If the latter is 
reddened, reduction is not finished and has to be con- 
tinued, with the addition of some zinc and sulphuric 
acid if necessary, until a repeated test shows no colora- 
tion of the potassium sulphocyanate solution. When 
the solution is completely reduced, pour it rapidly 
through a funnel in which a glass-wool cork has been 
loosely inserted. In doing this, a current of pure car- 
bonic acid should be conducted above upon the funnel, 
as well as into the beaker-glass beneath it, so that during 
filtering no oxidation of the solution by the oxygen of 
the air can take place. The flask, together with the 
zinc remaining therein, is rinsed with distilled water, 
and the rinsing water also poured through the funnel. 
The filtrate, which should not be hot, is further com- 
pounded with some dilute sulphuric acid, and the 



90 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

solution is then titrated with previously standardized 
potassium permanganate solution. 

Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution. 
— The potassium permanganate solution is prepared and 
standardized as follows : — 

Dissolve, with the assistance of heat, 1 gramme of 
pure crystallized potassium permanganate in distilled 
water, and add to the solution sufficient water to make 
1 liter. The solution thus ])rej)ared will keep for some 
time in a glass-stoppered bottle, but should not be ex- 
posed to the direct light of the sun. 

The solution is standardized by measuring in a burette 
with a glass stop-cock as many cubic centimeters of it 
as are required for just imparting to a ferrous oxide 
solution of known content a violet color. For prepar- 
ing this iron solution iron-ammonium alum or ammonio- 
ferric sulphate is used. This salt, being seldom found 
pure in commerce, is purified by dissolving a quantity of 
it in hot distilled water to which a few drops of sulphuric 
acid have been added, until a film of salt commences to 
separate. The beaker-glass containing the concentrated 
solution is then placed in cold water and the solution 
constantly stirred with a glass rod, so that the salt sepa- 
rates as a fine crystalline powder. When the fluid is 
perfectly cold, it is separated from the salt by pouring 
it into a funnel provided with a platinum cone, which, 
by means of a doubly perforated rubber cork, is })laced 
upon a glass flask. Through the other perforation of 
the cork passes a glass tube which is connected with a 
water air-pump. When nothing more drips off, the 
glass flask is exchanged for another, and the precipitate 
rinsed with a mixture of two parts absolute alcohol and 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 91 

one part distilled water. The salt is pressed between 
blotting-paper until perfectly dry. A solution of it 
must be reddened by potassium sulphocyanate. 

Of the perfectly dry ammonio-ferric sulphate, accu- 
rately weigh out two portions of 0.1 gramme each, and 
pour them into two beakers. Shortly before use, dis- 
solve the salt in 200 cubic centimeters of water to which 
some dilute sulphuric acid has been added. The burette 
provided with a glass stop-cock should have a capacity 
of at least 30 cubic centimeters, and be graduated into 
tenths of a cubic centimeter. It is filled to the point 
with potassium permanganate solution, and for more 
convenient reading a small float is put in it. The foot 
of the burette stand is best covered with a dead white 
glass plate, or, if such an arrangement cannot be had, a 
piece of white paper is placed under the beaker contain- 
ing the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution. Now allow 
the potassium permanganate solution to flow slowly from 
the burette into the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution, 
stirring constantly with a glass rod. The red color of 
the potassium permanganate solution at first disappears 
very rapidly, but later on more slowly, so that in order 
to hit the exact point, the solution must finally be 
admitted only drop by drop. When finally all the iron 
is oxidized, one drop suffices to very slightly color the 
fluid. The operation is finished when this coloration 
lasts a few minutes after stirring. Now, after waiting a 
short time to allow the fluid from the walls of the 
burette to run together, read oft' the number of cubic 
centimeters of potassium permanganate solution used. 
To control the correctness of the first reading, the 



92 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

experiment is repeated with the other quantity of salt 
weighed out. 

Since the quantity of iron contained in the ammonio- 
ferric sulphate amounts to ^, or, to be more exact, to 
T-¥^1Tj ^^ '^^ necessary, in order to find the iron in the 
quantity weighed off, to divide the latter by 7, or, what 
is the same, to multiply it by the factor 0.14.3. To cal- 
culate the quantity of ferrous oxide equivalent to the 
quantity of salt weighed out multijily by the factor 
0.184, and to find the ferric oxide with the factor 0.204. 
With the assistance of the figure found, the eflective 
value of the potassium })ermangauate solution is calcu- 
lated according to the following proposition : — 

Ccm. of potassium permanganate solution consumed : 
rFe 
g^ FeO =100 ccm : xg. 

The titration of the ferric oxide solution reduced by 
hydrogen is effected in exactly the same manner as the 
standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution 
just described. However, to obtain a sharp final re- 
action, the potassium permanganate solution must, 
towards the last, be very carefully added droji by dro]^. 
From the quantity of potassium permanganate solution 
consumed, the equivalent quantity of ferric oxide is then 
calculated. The percentage of ferric oxide deducted 
from the total percentage of ferric oxide and alumina 
gives the percentage of alumina by difference. 

6. Calculation of the content of clay hi the total soil. — 
To find the content of clay in the soil, calculate for the 
quantity of alumina found the equivalent quantity of 
clay containing water, according to Forchhammer's 



DETEEMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 93 

formula (Al2032[Si02] + 2H,0), by iiuiltiplying tlic 
weighed quantity of alumina by the factor 2.5294. 
Since the quantity of clay in the argilliferous particles 
(less than 0.05 millimeters in diameter) has been deter- 
mined, the percentage of clay in the total soil is calcu- 
lated. 

With very fine soils, especially loess and fat clammy 
soils, as well as such as, on account of their strongly 
humus nature, cannot be subjected to silt analysis, the 
disintegration with sulphuric acid in the tube will have 
to be at once executed with the total soil. With humus 
soils it will, however, be better to retain the method 
of disintegration with concentrated sulphuric acid by 
heating in an open platinum dish. It was formerly 
almost generally used for the determination of clay, 
though it does not yield as uniform results as disintegra- 
tion in the tube in which the concentration of the sul- 
phuric acid, its quantity, the temperature and time of 
action can be uniformly regulated. 

Fesca and others have frequently drawn attention to 
the fact that a portion of the alumina contained in the 
soil is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and is not referable 
to clay according to Forchhammer's formula. Fesca 
believes that this quantity of alumina soluble in hydro- 
chloric acid indicates zeoliti(; silicates. Though the 
correctness of this opinion is by no means proved, in 
very accurate and comprehensive soil investigations, it 
will be of interest to treat the argilliferous portions (less 
than 0.05 millimeter in diameter), witli hot concen- 
trated hydrochloric acid and to disintegrate the residue 
remaining thereby with sulphuric acid in the tube. 

However, for the approximate quantitative determina- 



94 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

tion of clay as a soil constituent, it is better to calculate 
the total ahnninu in dust and finest disintegrable 
particles as clay for the entire soil. Most soils do not 
contain the clay in a pure form, as already shown by 
Forch hammer's clay formula, l)ut it is rather a collective 
term for all silicates more or less in a state of decom- 
position or already decomposed. For agricultural 
purposes, it is of importance to be able to express the 
content of clay, as well as that of humus, in fixed 
numerical values, and it does not much matter whether 
in each separate case an exact petrographic equivalent is 
thereby designated, especially not, when still further ex- 
periments regarding the physical properties of the soil 
are to be made. 

D. Determination of the content of sand. — According 
to its chemical composition, the soil-constituent, saml, 
may represent something of very dissimilar nature. Sand 
being a transported prodnct of the disintegration and 
elutriation of heterogeneous minerals and rocks, it shows 
many variations in its perfected state. However, the 
minerals disintegrating with the greatest difficulty, 
especially quartz, will always preponderate in it. If the 
mechanical analysis is carefully executed, and with 
grains more than 0.05 millimeter in diameter, the sand 
can, with an elutriating velocity of 2.0 inillimeters per 
second, be quite completely separated from the clayey 
particles, and, hence, by the mechanical analysis already 
described, the content of sand and its granulation are 
found. 

Petrographic determination of the coarser admixed 
jxtrts of the sand. — The petrographic determination of 
the coarser admixed parts of the sand is geologically of 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 95 

importance, since it discloses the origin and formation 
of the soil. In an agricultural respect it is of value for 
judging the soil, as, for instance, in the presence of an 
abundance of feldspar, the soil possesses for the future a 
nearly inexhaustible reserve of plant-food, which be- 
comes only gradually available by the progressing de- 
composition of the feldspar. 

A certain amount of information regarding the nature 
of these admixtures is obtained by sorting out and test- 
ing the grains of sand of from 2 to 1 millimeters in 
diameter, and the o-i'avel over 2 millimeters in diameter. 
For this purpose moisten the sample to be examined 
with water and test the grains, best by INIohr's scale of 
hardness, as to color, lustre, and harduess, and further, 
as to cleavage, fusibility, and magnetic properties. 
Small limestones are recognized by the evolution of 
carbonic acid when treated with dilute hydrochloric 
acid. 

A further separation may be effected by bringing the 
admixed parts into specifically very heavy fluids. 

For this purpose, Thoulet prepares a solution of 2.77 
specific gravity (at from 52° to 59° F.) by alternately 
introducing iodide of mercury and potassium iodide in 
water, and effects with it the separation of all bodies of 
higher specific gravity. By diluting the solution, bodies 
of slighter specific gravity may also be separated from 
each other. 

Goldschmidt dissolves 210 grammes of potassium 
iodide and 280 grammes of iodide of mercury in 25 
cubic centimeters of distilled Avater and produces a 
solution of 3.196 specific gravity, upon which, for 
instance, fluor spar (specific gravity 3.1 to 3.2) floats. 



96 



THE I-:XAMlNATIOX OF SOILS. 



Rohrbach takes 100 parts of barium iodide and 130 
parts of iodide of mercury to 20 cubic centimeters of 
water, heats in the oil bath to from 302° to 360° F., and 
filters. The solution has a specific gravity of 3.39, and 
topaz floats upon it. 

With the aid of such solutions and the following 
table of specific gravities, the distinct admixed parts of 
the sand obtained by sifting or elutriating can be sepa- 
rated and determined. 



Gypsum 


2.2 to 2.4 


Augite 


2.88 to 3.5 


Orthoclase . 


2.53 " 2.58 


Tourmaline 


2.94 


" 3.24 


Albite . 


2.G2 " 2.67 


Ampliibole . 


2.9 


" 3.3 


Oligoclase . 


2.63 " 2.G8 


Fluor spar . 


3.1 


" 3.2 


Quartz 


2.65 


Rutile . 


4.2 


" 4.3 


Calcareous spar 


. 2.65 " 2.80 


Heavy spar . 


4.3 


" 4.7 


Anorthite 


. 2.67 " 2.76 


Pyrites 


4.9 


" 5.2 


Black mica . 


. 2.74 " 3.13 


Magnetic iron ore 


4.9 


" 5.2 


Muscovite 


. 2.76 " 3.1 









E. Determination of the content of quartz. — Since it is 
frequently of interest to determine the content of quartz 
in the sand, as well as the dust and the finest particles, 
J. Hazard has for this purpose proposed an indirect 
method, since no process is known for the direct se})a- 
ration of quartz in a mixture with orthoclase, albite, and 
oligoclase, it being always attacked in the disintegration 
of these silicates. 

The finely pulverized material is, according to Hazard, 
fused with 2 j)arts concentrated sul])huric and 1 })art 
distilled water, in a hard Bohemian glass tube, and for 
six hours exposed to a temperature of 482° F. in a 
tubular furnace, whereby any muscovite, biotite, garnet, 
tourmaline, talc, amphibole, hyperstliene, diallage, and 
pyroxene present is completely disintegrated, while 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 97 

orthoclase, albite, aud oligoclase remain undecomposed. 
The contents of the glass tube are brought into a dish 
and the particles adhering to the sides of the tube re- 
moved by means of a glass rod provided with a piece of 
rubber tubing. Before filtering oif, the fluid is strongly 
diluted. The superficially washed-out residue is then 
brought together with the filter into moderatelv dilute 
potash lye, in order to dissolve the silica separated from 
the silicates, and then digested for one hour upon the 
water bath. The solution is diluted Avith water, filtered 
off and the substance upon the filter first washed with 
hot dilute potash lye, and later on, with hot dilute 
hydrochloric acid. The thoroughly dried filter, together 
with its contents, is incinerated in a platinum crucible 
and weighed. 

The procedure is now exactly the same as in the sili- 
cate analysis. The powder in the platinum crucible is 
mixed with five times its quantity of anhydrous sodium 
carbonate and first heated over an ordinary burner, and, 
later on, over a blast lamp, until the mass flows quietly 
aud no more bubbles of carbonic acid are evolved. The 
hot crucible is placed upon a cold iron plate, w'hereby, 
in consequence of "the rapid cooling off, the mass readily 
becomes detached from the sides of the crucible. The 
melt, as well as the crucible itself, is brought into a 
beaker, and, after pouring distilled water upon it and 
covering the beaker with a watch-ciystal, the contents 
are heated to boiling. Now, by means of a pipette, intro- 
duced through the lip of the beaker, add in small propor- 
tions concentrated hydrochloric acid in excess, and heat 
the fluid until no more effervescence takes place. Then 
add a few drops of nitric acid and evaporate the fluid, 
7 



98 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

together witli the silicate separated, in a porcelain disli 
upon a water bath to })iilverulent dryness. As soon as 
the fluid commences to become thickly-fluid, it has to be 
coustantly stirred with a glass pestle, so that no larger 
cubes of common salt can form. In order to separate 
the silica as a powder entirely insoluble in acids, it is 
necessary to expel the hydrochloric acid as (;ompletcly as 
possible. This is best eifected by adding, as soon as the 
powder in tlie dish becomes dry, some hot water and 
again evaporating, Avith constant stirring, to pulverulent 
dryness. After cooling, moisten the powder with hydro- 
chloric acid, pour hot water over it, and, after several 
times washing out the silica in the dish with hot water, 
bring it upon the filter and rinse it with hot water until a 
drop running off shows no turbidity when mixed with 
nitrate of silver. Before incinerating the filter with the 
silica in the platinum crucible, it must be completely 
dried at 212° F. It is advisable to finally ignite the 
silica over the blast-lamp, whereby it slags somewhat 
together and is no longer hygroscopic when -weighed 
after cooling in the desiccator. The filter ash is deducted 
after w^eighing. 

In the filtrate from the silica, alumina and calcareous 
earth are determiucd by successive precipitation with 
ammonia and ammonium oxalate according to the 
methods previously described (p. 08 and p. 86). 

For the orthoclase and albite, whose silica is contained 
in the total quantity of silica obtained from the soda 
melt, Hazard has calculated the equivalent quantity of 
silica from the alumina found and deducted it from the 
total quantity of silica. The remainder represents the 
quartz present in the soil. For othoclase and albite the 
proportion of alumina to silicate is 1 : 3.50878. 



DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 99 

In the presence of lime the alumina equivalent to the 
lime is calculated according to Tschermak's formula for 
anorthite in the proportion of 1 calcareous earth : 1 .83214 
alumina. The alumina thus obtained is deducted from 
the weighed total alumina, and the quantity of silica 
ref{uired for the albite and orthaclase calculated to the 
rest of alumina. For the alumina of the anorthite, the 
quantity of silica belonging to it and to be deducted 
from the total silica is calculated from the proportion 1 
alumina: 1.16959 silica. 

E. Determination of the elementary composition of the 
soil. — If the soil to be examined is of homogeneous 
nature, as, for instance, may be the case with pure clays, 
marly sands, or sands of the subsoil, it may frequently 
be of interest to learn the elementary composition of the 
entire soil. For this purpose it is advisable to simul- 
taneously effect a disintegration with sodium carbonate, 
as well as with fluoric acid, the analytical results obtained 
being best controlled in this manner. 

a. Disintegration icith sodium carbonate. — For disinte- 
gration with sodium carbonate pulverize dust fine 1 to 2 
grammes of the total soil in an agate mortar and dry the 
powder at 212° F. Then pour it from a weighing tube 
into a platinum crucible and mix it by means of a plati- 
num spatula with 5 or 6 times its weight of anhydrous 
sodium carbonate. The mass in the covered crucible is 
heated, first over an ordinary burner, and finally fused 
over the blast lamp until it flows quietly and no more 
carbonic acid escapes. The glowing crucible is placed 
upon a cold iron plate whereby the melt quickly con- 
geals and later on can be readily detached from the cru- 
cible. The dissolution of tiie melt in hvdrochloric acid 



100 THE exami>;atiox of soils. 

and scj^aralion of .silica are effected in the manner given 
on p. 97. In the filtrate from the silica the alumina, 
ferric oxide, oxide of manganese, calcareous earth and 
magnesia are determined according to the methods pre- 
viously given. Such substances as titanic acid, sulj)liu- 
ric acid, chlorine and phosphoric acid which occur only 
in small quantities in the soil cannot be determined with 
sufficient accuracy in the quantity used, and^ therefore, 
need not to be noticed. 

If the substance used is free from organic or carbon- 
aceous matter, the content of ferrous oxide may be de- 
termined by disintegrating a special sample of the total 
soil with sulphuric acid in a closed glass tube (p. 84), 
separating the residue from the fluid by filtering in a 
current of carbonic acid and determining the ferrous 
oxide in the fluid by titration with potassium perman- 
ganate solution (p. 89). 

6. Disintegration with Jfuoric acid. — Disintegration 
with fluoric acid is best effected by simultaneously com- 
bining with it a determination of loss by ignition. For 
this purpose 1 to 2 grammes of the finely pulverized 
substance dried at 212° F. are first gently heated in a 
])latinum crucible and then vigorously ignited over the 
blast lamp. After cooling in the desiccator the loss by 
ignition is determined by M'cighing. The mass which 
is slagged together, and, in the presence of lime, often 
fused, is moisttned with distilled water and then strong 
fluoric acid is poured over it. The crucible is now cov- 
ered, and after placing in it a small platinum spatula of 
stout platinum wire to the handle of which a cork is 
secured, allow the acid to act upon the substance 2 or 3 
days, stirring frequently, until a pasty mass is formed. 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 101 

Then, with frequent stirring, evaporate the contents of 
the crucible to dryness upon the water bath, in order 
to expel the silica as silicon-fluoride. The crucible 
being held obliquely, the dry residue in it is moistened, 
with concentrated sulphuric acid in order to convert the 
fluorides into sulphates. The excess of sulphuric acid 
is expelled by heating the crucible placed obliquely so 
that a very small flame acts upon it from the edge ; this 
is done to prevent the substance from scattering. When 
the mass is dry, it is dissolved from the crucible by 
means of hydrochloric acid and water, and with the aid 
of a wash bottle brought into a beaker. When covered 
with a watch-crystal and boiled continuously, the mass 
should dissolve entirely clear. Now, for the oxidation 
of the ferrous oxide, add some bromine water, boil the 
fluid until the excess of bromine is completely expelled 
and determine the aluminia, oxides of iron and manga- 
nese, calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, and soda. 



VII. 

DETERMINATION OF THE PLANT-NOURISHING 

SUBSTANCES. 

In the determination of the plant-nourishing sub- 
stances we may proceed either by separately determining 
the nourishing substances at tlie time present and avail- 
able in the soil, and those which only gradually become 
available, or by determining from the start the sum-total 
of those already present and of those which in a con- 
ceivable space of time may become active by processes of 



102 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

weathering and decay. In the first case tlie processes 
taking place in nature will have to be imitated as closely 
as possible, this being apj)roxiniately effected by success- 
ively treating the soil with agents constantly increasing 
in strength. 

A. Determination of the plant-nonrishing substances in 
soil extractions. — The above-indicated requirements are 
best fulfilled by the following fluids, which in very com- 
prehensive soil investigations are successively allowed to 
act upon the soil : — 

1. Cold distilled water. 2. Cold distilled water, one- 
quarter saturated with pure carbonic acid. 3. Cold 
concentrated hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.15). 
4. Boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid. 

If only the sum-total of the plant-nourishing sub- 
stances present and of those which will shortly become 
active is to be determined, the soil is directly treated 
with boiling; concentrated hvdrochloric acid, the other 
extractions being omitted. 

I. Kvtraction of the soil u-ith cold distilled water. — By 
treating the soil with cold distilled water, onlv the con- 
stituents soluble in water can, of course, be extracted. 
Such constituents, independent of humus substances, are 
chiefly chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Hence, only these 
substances will have to be determined. 

The aqueous extract of the soil is prepared as fol- 
lows : Bring into a glass flask of 2 liters capacity, and 
which can be closed with a rubber cork, 500 granmies 
of air-dry fine si>il (less than 2 millimeters in diameter), 
and pour over it 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled 
water, less the volume which would escape in drying 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 103 

500 grammes of fine soil at 212° F. For this purpose 
determine at the same time the water escaping from 
about 20 grammes of the same fine soil when continu- 
ously heated. First weigh the air-dry sample in a 
weighing-flask, then spread it out in as thin a layer as 
possible upon a watch-crystal, and heat it for 2 hours at 
212° F. in a drying-chamber. Now, with the aid of a 
brush bring the dried substance, while hot, into the 
heated weighing-flask, close the latter hermetically, and 
let it cool in the weighing room. The determination of 
the water escaped at 212° F. can only be relied on 
when, after repeated drying and again weighing, no 
noticeable difference in weight is obtained. The quan- 
tity of soil weighed out for extraction is allowed to 
remain in contact with the water for two days, being 
in the meanwhile frequently shaken, and, after settling, 
the supernatant fluid is drawn ofi^by means of a siphon 
provided with a suction pipe. The fluid is then filtered 
tlirough a dry filter into two measuring flasks, one of 
500 and the other of 300 cubic centimeters capacity. 

1. Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract. — 
Evaporate the 300 cubic centimeters of the aqueous ex- 
tract ; which correspond to 150 grammes of fine soil 
dried at 212° F., in a small weighed platinum dish upon 
the sand bath, dry the residue at 212° F., and weigh it 
after cooling in the desiccator. Now, gently ignite the 
platinum dish, and after cooling in the desiccator, weigh 
H again. By this means the sum-total of the substances 
dissolved in water, as well as the incombustible matter 
contained therein, is learned. If the latter is less than 
0.5 gramme, the separation of tlie alkalies and alkaline 
earths cannot be accurately carried out, on account of 



104 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

the small quantity which would have to be weighed. 
It is, therefore, best to repeat the aqueous extraction 
with such a quantity of fine soil that tlie amount of 
extract intended for the determination of the bases con- 
tains at least 1 to 0.5 gramme of dissolved substances. 
The residue obtained by igniting is dissolved with the 
addition of some hydrochloric acid in distilled water 
and filtered in case traces of silica are found. The fluid 
is then heated to boiling, and traces of iron and alumina, 
which, as a rule, reach the fluid only by turbid filtering, 
are precipitated with ammonia. In the filtrate the cal- 
careous earth is precipitated in the manner given on pp. 67 
and 68. The filtrate of calcium oxalate is evaporated in a 
capacious platinum crucible, and, after drying, moderately 
ignited to expel the excess of sal ammoniac. The pro- 
cess of drying can be essentially accelerated by constant 
stirring with a platinum spatula. The residue is taken 
up with a few drops of water, brought into a small 
beaker, and the solution, if not clear, is again filtered 
through a small filter. 

The magnesia is now precipitated by ammonium car- 
bonate, the solution of which is prepared as follows : 
Dissolve 230 grammes of sublimed sesquicarbonate 
of ammonia in 180 cubic centimetres of ammonia of 
0.92 specific gravity, and add sufficient water to make 
the volume of the fluid exactly 1 liter. This solution 
must be added in consideral)le excess. If much mag- 
nesia is present, a voluminous precipitate is at first 
formed M'hich, on stirring is, however, completely re- 
dissolved. The fluid is now allowed to stand quietly 
for twenty-four hours, during which time a fine crystal- 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 105 

line precipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium 
carbonate is formed. This salt is filtered off, washed 
with ammonium carbonate solution, and when a drop 
running off leaves no residue when evaporated upon a 
platinum sheet, dried at 212° F. in the drying chamber. 
The precipitate, together with the filter, is heated in the 
platinum crucible, and when the filter is carbonized, 
strongly ignited, the crucible being placed in an oblique 
position. The precipitate, which consists of magnesia, 
must be perfectly white after ignition. 

The filtrate from the ammonium mag-nesium carbonate 
contains the alhaUes. It is brought into a capacious 
platinum dish, which is covered with a watch-crystal and 
heated upon the water-bath. As soon as the decomposi- 
tion of the ammonium carbonate begins, the flame is 
made somewhat smaller to prev^ent the fluid from foam- 
ing over, and the latter is then heated until no more 
bubbles of carbonic acid escape. The watch-crystal is 
then removed and rinsed off with distilled water, and 
the fluid evaporated in a smaller weighed platinum dish 
upon the water-bath. The residue is moistened with a 
few drops of hydrochloric acid, again evaporated, and 
the covered platinum dish dried in the drying chamber 
at a temperature gradually raised to 392° F. By this 
means loss by the decrepitation of the water inclosed 
in the common salt while igniting the salt in the pla- 
tinum dish is avoided. The platinum crucible is only 
slightly ignited, the alkaline chlorides being volatile at a 
strong red heat. After cooling in the desiccator the 
platinum crucible is weighed. In this manner the sum 
total of the chlorides of potassium and sodium are 
learned. 



106 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



To separate the potassium from the sodium, take up 
p.^ , . the chlorides with a few drops 

of water aud add soUition of 
platiuum eliloride iu excess. 
Now, in an atmosphere free 
from ammonia, evaporate tlie 
fluid on a covered water-bath 
(Fig. 15) until it possesses a 
syrupy consistency and the 
platinum chloride commences 
to separate in it in a crystal- 
line form. After cooling, add 
one })art of a mixture of 55 
cubic centimeters of absolute 
alcohol and 15 cubic centi- 
meters of ether, and allow 
the fluid to stand under a 
glass-bell for 12 hours, stir- 
ring it several times in the 
mean while. Then filter it through a weighed filter and 
wash the precipitate remaining upon the filter with some 
alcohol containing ether until the fluid running off is no 
longer colored. 

A greater number of weighed filters may be best pre- 
pared as follows : Treat several filters first with hydro- 
chloric acid, and, after thoroughly sweetening them with 
distilled water, dry them continuously at 212° F. in the 
drying closet. Then bring them hot into a weighing 
flask, also heated to 212° F., and weigh the flask after 
cooling. ]\v successively taking out the filters, and each 
time reweighing the flask, the weights of the filters are 
obtained, which are best noted upon them with a pencil. 




PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 107 

The precipitate of potassium platinum chloride is 
thoroughly washed upon tlie filter, then dried at 212° F. 
brought hot, together with the filter, into a weighing 
tube and weighed after cooling. By deducting the 
weight of the weighing tube, and of the filter, from the 
weight last obtained, the quantity of potassium platinum 
chloride present is obtained. To obtain the equivalent 
quantity of potassium multiply by the factor 0.193. 

Instead of weighing the potassium platinum chloride 
upon a weighed filter, the salt may be decomposed and 
the potassium determined from the platinum obtained. 
In this case add to the precipitate in the filter some pure 
oxalic acid and ignite the mass in a weighed porcelain 
crucible provided with a cover ; finally, in order to 
reduce all the platinum, conduct a current of water upcm 
the crucible and allow the substance to cool in it. To 
remove the potassium chloride, the platinum is washed 
with water by repeated decantation, and, after drying 
and again igniting, weighed. To obtain the equivalent 
quantity of potassium, multiply the platinum by the 
factor 0.477. 

To obtain the sodium, calculate the potassium to 
potassium chloride by multiplying by the factor 1.584, 
deduct the potassium chloride fiom the sum of the 
chlorides, and nniltiply the sodium chloride thus ob- 
tained by the factor 0.530. 

If many sulj)hates are present among the soil-salts 
soluble in water, which may be the case with soils very 
rich in gypsum, it is better, after precipitating the mag- 
nesia with ammonium carbonate and evaporating the 
solution, to add a few drops of sulphuric acid and then 
ignite strongly in a weighed platinum dish. In doing 



108 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

this, a small piece of ammonium carbonate has to be held 
by means of a pair of tweezers in the tlish in order to 
convert the acid alkaline sulphates into neutral. The 
alkaline sulphates being very refractory, ignition may 
finally be carried to an initial red heat. After weighing, 
dissolve the sulphates in water, compound them ^vith 
platinum chloride, and evaporate the solution to a 
syrupy consistency upon the water-bath. Now dis- 
solve the mass, according to Finkener's directions, in a 
mixture which, for 30 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric 
acid, contains 150 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol 
and 35 cubic centimeters of anhydrous ether. When 
the whole has stood for one hour, bring the precipitate 
upon a weighed filter and wash it Avith a mixture of 
hydrochloric acid, alcohol, and ether, in the above-men- 
tioned proportions until the fluid runs off clear. Then, 
to remove the hydrochloric acid, wash with alcohol con- 
taining ether, dry the filter at 212° F. and weigh it, 
together with the potassium platinum chloride upon it, 
in the manner given on p. 107. 

To determine the sodium in this case, multiply the 
potassium by the factor 1.851, deduct the potassium 
sulphate thus obtained from the total of the sulphates, 
and multiply the remaining sodium sul2)hate by the 
factor 0.437. 

2, I) dcr mi nation of the acids in the aqueous extract, 
a. Determination of chlorine. — If the aqueous extract of 
the soil contains no sulphuric acid or only a trace of it, 
which is recognized by filtering off a small sample of the 
supernatant water and compounding tiie clear filtrate 
with some nitric acid and barium chloride solution, the 



PLAXT-XOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 109 

chlorine may first be determined. Otherwise the sul- 
phuric acid is first precipitated. 

Compound the 500 cul)ic centimeters of aqueous ex- 
tract mentioned on p. 102 with a small quantity of pure 
sodium carbonate and evaporate to about 100 cubic cen- 
timeters. In case anything lias been separated, the 
fluid is filtered, compounded with nitric acid and heated. 
From the boiling hot solution, the chlorine is precipi- 
tated with silver nitrate solution, stirring constantly 
with a glass rod, until the precipitate balls together and 
the fluid becomes entirely clear. The silver cliloride 
thus obtained is filtered off, washed with hot water, 
dried at 212° F., aud, after detaching it as much as pos- 
sible from the filter, brought into a previously weighed 
porcelain crucible. The filter is incinerated by itself 
upon the lid of the crucible aud then added to the silver 
chloride in the crucible. Since by incineration the par- 
ticles of silver chloride adhering to the filter have been 
partially reduced to silver, saturate the filter ash with a 
drop of nitric acid which is allowed to drop into the 
crucible from a glass rod. Then heat somewhat in order 
to dissolve the silver and add one drop of hydrochloric 
acid. The cnicible is then heated, first very moderately, 
and then gradually more strongly, and, when no more 
vapors of nitrous acid escape, so strongly that the silver 
chloride fuses together to a regulus. Now allow the 
crucible to cool in the desiccator, then weigh it and de- 
duct the filter ash. The quantity of the silver chloride 
found multiplied by the factor 0.247 gives the quautity 
of chlorine in the aqueous extraction (500 cubic cen- 
timeters equal to 250 grammes of soil dried at 212° F.). 

b. Detenninafion of Hulphnric, acid. — If the aqueous 



110 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

extract of the soil contains sulphate, the sulphuric acid, 
as previously mentioned, is precipitated before the chlo- 
rine. Evaporate the oOO cubic centimeters mentioned 
on p. 107, to 100 cubic centimeters, filter, and into the 
boiling hot solution precipitate the sulphuric acid with 
barium nitrate solution. 

Since the heavy precipitate consisting of barium sul- 
phate generally carries down with it other salts, it must 
be ao-ain dio;ested for some time with dilute hydrochloric 
acid, after being M'ashed with hot water, dried and 
weighed. Then pour the supernatant hydrochloric acid 
through a very small filter and wash the precipitate, 
witliout taking it from the crucible, by decanting with 
hot water. Evaporate the filtrate and wash-water nearly 
to dryness in a platinum dish and bring the precipitate 
thereby separated also upon the filter. After washing, 
drying and incinerating the latter, add it to the other 
precipitate in the platinum crucible and ignite at a 
moderate red heat. Weigh the crucible after cooling in 
the desiccator. 

The barium sulphate multiplied by the factor 0.34.3 
will give the weight of sulphuric acid (SO3) present. 

c. Determination of nitric acid. — Pour over 1000 
grammes of the air-dry fine soil 2000 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water less the quantity of water calculated 
from the determination of the hygroscopic water which 
would escape from 1000 grammes of soil in drying at 
212° F, AlloAV the soil to remain in contact with the 
water for forty-eight hours, shaking frequently. Then 
remove the supernatant clear fluid by means of a siplion 
provided with a suction-tube, and filter it through a dry 
filter into a liter-flask. One liter of this soil extract is 



PLANT-NOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. Ill 

equal to 500 grammes of soil dried at 212° F. Com- 
pound tliis quantity of aqueous extract with a small 
quantity of pure sodium carbonate and evaporate it to 
about 100 cubic centimeters upon the water-bath. Any 
precipitate formed is filtered off, washed, and tlie filtrate 
again evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters. 

For the determination of the nitric acid in these 100 
cubic centimeters, it is best to use the method originated 
by Schoening and variously modified by T. Schulze as 
well as by Fruehling and Grouveu, Reichardt, and Tie- 
mann. It is based upon the reduction of the nitric acid 
by a solution of ferrous chloride in hydrochloric acid to 
nitric oxide, expelling the latter by boiling and collect- 
ing it. The chemical process takes place according to 
the following equation : — 

GFeCl^ + 2KXO3 + 8HC1 = 4Hp + 2KC1 4- 
SFe^Clg + 2NO; or : GFeCl^ + 2HNO3 + 6HC1 = 
4Hp+3Fe2Cl6+ 2NO. 

This method can be especially recommended, since the 
accuracy of the result is not in the least impaired even 
by the presence of dissolved humus constituents, 

a. Tiemann's modification of Schloesing-Schidze's method 
for the determination of nitric acid. — Tiemann's modifica- 
tion has the advantage of yielding very accurate and 
reliable results with the use of an apparatus dis- 
tinguished for simplicity. 

The aqueous extract evaporated to 100 cubic centi- 
meters is brought into a glass flask, A (Fig. 16), of oue- 
half-liter capacity. It is closed by a doubly perforated 
rubber cork. Two glass tubes bent in the shape of a 
knee fit accurately into the perforations of the rubber 
cork. The tube, c b a, is at a, drawn out into not too 



112 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



fine a point and projects about 2 centimeters below the 
rubber cork, while ejg is exactly even with the lower 
surface of tlie cork. Both these tubes are connected by 
means of thin black rubber tubing with the tubes, c d 



Fiir. 10. 




and <j h. The rubber tubing can be hermetically closed 
by two .strong clips, c and rj. The end of the tube (j h 
enters the so-called crystallizing glass dish, B, and pro- 
jects M'ith the point, which is bent upwards and covered 
with rnbber tubing 2 to 3 centimeters into the measur- 
ing tube, C. The latter is graduated into tenths of cubic 
centimeters, and, like the glass dish, 7>, is filled with 
thoroughly boiled 10 per cent, soda lye prepared by dis- 
solving 12.9 parts of caustic; soda in 100 parts of water. 
The fluid to be examined for a content of nitric acid 
is first boiled for one hour, the tubes bcino; at first left 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 113 

open and without g h dipping into the dish B, in order 
to expel the air from the flask A by aqueous vapor. 
The end of the tube efg*h is then brought into the 
caustic soda dish, without, however, dipping in the 
measuring tube, and the aqueous vapors are allowed to 
escape partially through the soda lye and partially 
through the tube abed. After a few minutes, the tube 
is pressed together, atg, with the fingers ; and when all the 
air has been expelled, the soda lye w^ill reascend in the 
vacuum of the tube g h, which is recognized by a gentle 
blow on the fingers. If this is the case, the tube behind 
the place pressed together is closed with the clip g, and 
the vapors are allowed to escape through abed. The 
fluid is kept boiling until evaporated to 10 cubic centi- 
meters. The gas flame is now removed, the rubber 
tubing immediately closed at c, with the clip, and the tube 
c d filled wdth thoroughly boiled water. Should an air 
bubble remain at c, it is removed by pressing Avith the 
finger. 

The measuring tube is now filled with thoroughly boiled 
soda lye, and, after closing the opening wdth the thumb 
so that no air bubbles can enter, the tube is inverted and 
immersed over the lower end of the tube g h into the 
soda lye. 

When the tubes c and g are pressed together by the 
external pressure of air, the nearly saturated solution of 
ferrous chloride or ferrous sulphate compounded with 
some hydrochloric acid is brought into a beaker on the 
upper portion of which 20 cubic centimeters are divided 
off by two strips of paper pasted on the outside. An- 
other beaker is filled with concentrated hydrochloric 
acid. Now dip the tube c d into ferrous chloride solution, 



114 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

and, after opening the clip c, allow 15 to 20 cubic 
centiraetei*s to run into the flask. Then dip the tube e d 
into the concentrated hydro?liloric acid and let a small 
quantity of it rise twice until all the ferrous chloride is 
rinsed out of the tube abed. At 6 a small bubble of 
hydrochloric acid is frequently formed, which <;ompletely 
disappears on heating the flask. Now heat the flask 
very moderately until the rubber tubings begin to swell 
up somewhat ; then substitute the finger for the clip at 
g, and, as soon as the gas-pressure becomes somewhat 
sti'onger, allow the nitric oxide, expelled from the solu- 
tion by heating, to pass over into the measuring tube. 
The boilino; of the fluid is continued until an increase of 
the volume of gas in tlie measuring tube is no longer 
perceptible. By the vigorous absorption of hydro- 
chloric acid gas by the soda lye, a crackling noise is 
made, but the end of the tube g h being protected, as 
previously mentioned, by rubber tubing, its fracture 
need not be feared. 

AVhen the operation is finished, the tube g h is re- 
moved from the dish, the measuring tube closed beneath 
the soda lye with the thumb, and, after shaking it, 
together with the soda lye still in it, in order to remove 
any traces of hydrochloric acid, immerse it in a large 
glass cylinder filled with water of 59° to 64° F. 

The volume of nitric oxide can be read ofl" after 
twenty minutes. For this purpose immerse the measur- 
injr tube so far into the water of the cvlinder that the 
fluid in the measuring tube is at the same level with the 
fluid outside of it. In this case the nitric oxide is under 
the prevailing atmospheric pressnre as indicated by the 
barometer. 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 115 

Before reading off the volume of gas the measuring 
tube should be placed as vertically as possible. In 
reading off the volume of gas, the centre of the dark 
zone formed by the water dra^ying up on the glass is 
taken as the actual surface of the water, and the quan- 
tity of nitrogen evolved noted in whole and tenths of 
cubic centimeters. 

The volume of every gas measured over water, hence 
in a moist state, is dependent on the temperature of the 
surroundings, the pressure of the atmosphere and the 
tension of the aqueous vapor. Hence, in reading off 
the volume of gas, the temperature of the water in the 
cylinder is noted as well as the lieight of the barometer, 
and the volume is calculated -with regard to the tension 
of aqueous vapor at 0° C. and a pressure of 700 milli- 
meters of mercury. The condition in which a dry 
volume of gas is, at 0° C, and a pressure of 760 milli- 
meters is designated as the normal condition. 

According to Mariotte's law, the volume of gas is in- 
versely as the pressure, and since the expansion of a gas 
by heat amounts for each degree C. to ^ts of the volume 
it occupies at 0° C, it follows, that in calculating the 
volume of gas to the normal state, the pressure exercised 
by the moist state must be deducted from the height of 
the barometer. 

^ T:273.(.B-/) 
(273 + t).760 

In this forujula To means the volume of gas at the 
normal temperature (0°C.), Fthe volume of gas read 
off at the height of the barometer B, and the tempera- 
ture t, while/ indicates the tension of the aqueous vapor 
in the millimeters of pressure of mercury at t° C. 



116 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



The tension of the aqueous vapor is found from tlie 
followinjr table : — 





Tension in 




Tension in 




Tension in 


Tempera- 


millimeters 


Tempera- 


millimeters 


Tempera- 


millimeters 


ture, C. 


of pressure of 


ture, C. 


of i)rcssure of 


ture, C. 


of pressure of 




mereiiry. 




mercury. 




mercury. 


0° 


4.5 


9° 


8.5 


18° 


15.3 


1 


4.9 


10 


9.1 


19 


16.3 


2 


5.2 


11 


9.7 


20 


17.4 


3 


5 () 


12 


10.4 


21 


18.5 


4 


ti.O 


13 


11.1 


22 


19.6 


5 


6.5 


14 


11.9 


23 


20.9 


(5 


6.9 


15 


12.7 


24 


22.2 


7 


7.4 


16 


13.5 


25 


23.5 


8 


8.0 


17 


14.4 


26 


25.0 



To calculate the nitric oxide found to nitric acid in 
ii;rainmes, multiply the number of cubic centimeters of 
nitric oxide calculated to the normal state by the factor 
0.002418. 

b. W. Wolf's method of ddcrmlmng the nitric acid by 
means of zinc in alkaline solution. — This method, which 
is distinguished by simplicity and accuracy, is based 
upon the reduction of nitrates to ammonia gas by zinc 
in alkaline solution throngli the hydrogen formed 
thereby. 

Since the presence of humus substances impairs the 
e.xperiment, the 1000 cubic centimeters of aqueous ex- 
tract (p. 110) to be used for this purpose must, in case 
they show a brown coloration, be boiled with the addi- 
tion of some pure milk of lime, whereby the humus 
substances are separated. After filtering the latter oif, 
the excess of lime in the filtrate is precipitated by the 
introduction of pure carbonic acid and, after again filter- 
ing, the filtrate is evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters. 



PLANT-NOUETSHING SUBSTANCES. 117 

Now brino' the fluid into a glass flask of about h liter 
capacity and compound it with soda lye, so that it con- 
tains about 14 grammes of soda. Close t]ie flask quickly 
with a perforated rubber cork and insert a cylindrical 
funnel tube in the perforation. Close the top of the 
funnel tube with a rubber cork through which passes an 
open glass tube. Bring into the funnel tube glass beads 
moistened with hydrochloric acid, so that the hydrogen 
evolved can escape free from ammonia. The evolution 
of hydrogen is induced by placing a spiral of sheet zinc 
and sheet iron soldered together in the fluid. This 
gas is allowed to act upon the nitrates 4 to 5 hours at 
an ordinary temperature. The rubber cork is then 
carefully withdrawn, its lower surface rinsed off' and, 
after rinsing the hydrochloric acid adhering to the glass 
beads into the flask by means of a wash-bottle, the 
spiral, which must also be rinsed off", is taken from the 
fluid with the aid of tweezers. Now quickly add some 
soda lye to the fluid, and connect the flask by means of 
the rubber cork with a glass receiver, in the other end of 
which a knee-shaped tube is inserted through a rubber 
cork. This glass tube reaches into an Erlenmeyer 
boiling flask containing about 10 cubic centimeters of 
pure dilute hydrochloric acid. The end of the tube in 
the receiver should not dip into the fluid, but be just above 
its surface. Now boil the fluid which contains the ni- 
trosren in the form of ammonia until one-half of it has 
been distilled into tlie receiver. 

The determination of the ammonium chloride con- 
tained in the distillate can be efifected in various ways : 

1. Determination of the ammonium chloride as am- 
monio-platinum after the conversion of the nitric acid into 



118 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

ammonium chloride. — The above-mentioned distillate, 
which contains the sal ammoniac is evaporated to a 
small volume upon the water-bath and compounded in 
excess with pure platinum chloride solution free from 
nitric acid. The whole is then evaporated nearly to 
dryness upon the water-bath and a mixture of 2 vol- 
umes of absolute alcohol and 1 of ether added. The 
residue remaining undissolved, constituting a heavy 
pale-yellow powder, is brought upon a filter previously 
weighed and dried at 257° F., and washed with alcohol 
containing ether, of the above-mentioned composition. 
It is then dried at 257° F. and weighed in a tarred 
weighing iiask. The result is not effected by a darker 
color of the precipitate. 

If the metallic platinum is to be weighed, it is only 
necessary to heat the ammonio-platinum in a crucible 
covered with a lid. Heating must, however, be effected 
very gradually as otherwise the escaping vapors of chlo- 
rine and ammonium chloride might readily carry away 
particles of platinum. After detaching the precipitate 
as much as possible, the filter is incinerated by itself and 
then added to the mass. To obtain the equivalent of 
nitric acid, multiply the ammonio-platinum by 0.241, or 
the })latinum by 0.547. 

2. Volumetric determination by the Knop- Wagner 
azotometer of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after 
converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride. — This 
method is based upon the process that a sal ammoniac 
solution is decomposed by sodium bromide solution, 
nitrogen being liberated : 3(BrONa) + 2(XII^C1) = 
3(BrNa) + 3(OH,) + 2HC1 + 2N. 

The solution of sodium bromide is prepared as fol- 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 119 

lows: Dissolve 100 grammes of caustic soda in 12-50 
cubic centimeters of distilled water, cool the solution 
and add, with constant shaking, 25 cubic centimeters of 
bromine. This lye is gradually decomposed by light 
and must, therefore, be kept in a dark bottle. Fifty 
cubic centimeters of it are capable of evolving 130 to 
150 cubic centimeters of nitrogen from sal ammoniac 
solution. 

The Knop- Wagner azotometer (Fig. 17) is arranged 
as follows : The bottom of the developing vessel is ce- 
mented in a metallic ring and loaded with lead. It is 
partitioned off into divisions by a glass wall not reaching 
quite to the top ; one of these divisions is filled with 
sal ammoniac solution and the other with bromine lye. 
It is necessary to constantly retain a determined propor- 
tion of volume of the two fluids. Hence, the distillate 
mentioned on p. 117 is evaporated nearly to dryness in 
a porcelain dish and, after filling a pipette, holding 10 
cubic centimeters, with distilled water, a few drops are 
added to dissolve the sal ammoniac. This solution is 
poured through a long funnel-tube into one of the divis- 
ions of the developing vessel, the porcelain dish and 
funnel-tube being rinsed out with the water remaining 
in the pipette. Into the other division 50 cubic cen- 
timeters of bromine lye, prepared according to the direc- 
tions given above, are introduced by means of a pipette. 
The developing vessel being closed with a rubber cork, 
it is immersed in the cooling vessel so that the rubber 
cork is just covered with water. This cooling vessel, as 
well as the tall glass cylinder, is filled Avitli cool water 
of the same temperature. Through the rubber cork of 
the developing vessel passes a glass tube provided with 



120 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



a glass stop-cock which is connected by means of rubber 
tubing with the graduated glass tube in tlie cylinder. 



Fig. 17. 




The glass stop-cock is loosened or taken out, and the 
communicating tubes inclosed in the glass cylinder are 
filled with water by compressing the rubber ball pro- 
vided with a hole, the clip being opened at the same 
time. By discharging the water through the clip, the 
lower meniscus of the surface of the water is exactly 
brought to the point of the graduated tube. After 5 
minutes the glass stop-cock is firmly replaced, but so 
that the developing vessel remains in communication 
with the graduated tube. Now wait 5 minutes, and 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 121 

then observe whether the surface of the Avater in the 
graduated tube has risen in consequence of the contrac- 
tion of the air due to cooling oif. This being the case 
the glass stop-cock is once more loosened, then firmly 
replaced and, after 5 minutes, the height of water in the 
graduated tube again observed. This is repeated until 
the water level remains constant at the point. The 
developing vessel is now taken from the cooling cylinder 
and, after discharging 20 to 30 cubic centimeters of 
water through the clip, the bromine lye is gradually 
allowed to flow into the sal ammoniac solution by in- 
clining the developing vessel. The evolution of nitro- 
gen is promoted by swinging the glass. The glass stop- 
cock is now closed, and, after vigorously shaking the de- 
veloping flask, the stop-cock is again opened and the 
developed nitrogen allowed to pass into the graduated 
tube, this operation being repeated three times. The 
developing vessel is now replaced in the cooling cylinder 
and brought into communication with the graduated 
tube by means of the glass stop-cock. After 15 minutes 
it has acquired the same temperature as before, and suffi- 
cient water is either discharged or added through the 
clip to bring the level in the two communicating tubes 
to the same height. Now read off" the number of cubic 
centimeters of nitrogen evolved, the temperature indi- 
cated by the thermometer in the cylinder, and the height 
of the barometer. 

Since the fluid in the developing vessel has absorbed 
a not inconsiderable quantity of nitrogen, it has to be 
taken into calculation. In order to utilize, for this 
purpose, the following table by Dietrich, it is necessary 
always to use exactly 10 cubic centimeters of the fluid 



122 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



to be examined and 50 cubic centimeters of bromine Ive 
of the above-mentioned concentration, since the (juantity 
of gas absorbed also changes with tlie concentration and 
quantity of the fluid. 

Dietrich's table for the absorption of nitrogen in GO cubic centi- 
meters' developing fluid (50 cubic centimeters of bromine lye 
and 10 cubic centimeters of water), with a specific gravity of 
the lye of 1.1, and such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters 
correspond to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, tcith an evolu- 
tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen. 



Evolved 
Absorbed 


com. 
ccm. 


1 
0.06 


2 
00.8 


3 
0.11 


4 
0.13 


5 
0.16 


6 
0.18 


7 
0.21 


8 
0.23 


9 
0.26 


10 
0.28 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


cem. 
ccm. 


11 
0.31 


12 
0.33 


13 
0.36 


14 
0.38 


15 
0.41 


16 
0.43 


17 
0.46 


18 
0.48 


19 
0.51 


20 
0.53 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


21 
0.56 


22 
0.58 


23 
0.61 


24 
0.63 


25 
0.66 


26 
0.68 


27 
0.71 


28 
0.73 


29 
0.76 


30 
0.78 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


31 

0.81 


32 
0.83 


33 

0.86 


34 

0.88 


35 
0.91 


36 
0.93 


37 
0.96 


38 
0.98 


39 
1.01 


40 
1.03 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


41 
1.06 


42 
1.08 


43 
1.11 


44 
1.13 


45 
1.16 


46 
1.18 


47 
1.21 


48 
1.23 


49 
1.26 


50 
1.28 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


51 
1.31 


52 
1.33 


53 
1.36 


54 
1.38 


55 
1.41 


56 
1.43 


57 
1.46 


58 
1.48 


59 
1.51 


60 
1.53 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


61 
1.56 


62 
1.58 


63 
1.61 


64 
1.63 


65 
1.66 


66 
1.68 


67 
1.71 


68 
1.73 


69 
1.76 


70 
1.78 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


71 
1.81 


72 
1.83 


73 
1.86 


74 
1.88 


75 
1.91 


76 
1.93 


77 
1.96 


78 
1.98 


79 
2.01 


80 
2.03 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


81 
2.06 


82 
2.08 


83 
2.11 


84 
2.13 


85 
2.16 


86 
2.18 


87 
2.21 


88 
2.23 


89 
2.26 


90 

2.28 


Evolved 
Absorbed 


ccm. 
ccm. 


91 
2.31 


92 
2.33 


93 
2..36 


94 
2.38 


95 
2.41 


96 
2.43 


97 
2.46 


98 
2.48 


99 
2.51 


100 
2.5:5 



Calculate first to the normal condition, according to 
the formula given on j). 115, the quantity of nitrogen read 
off in the graduated tube, taking into consideration the 
tension of the aqueous vapor. Then take from Dietrich's 
table the quantity of gas absorbed at the volume evolved. 
Add this to the quantity of nitrogen calculated to the 



PLANT-XOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 123 

normal state and the equivalent quantity of nitric acid 
is obtained by muliplying by the factor 0.0048452. 

3. Special method in the examination of peat. — Peat 
moors, which are to be cultivated, require special ex- 
amination. A determination of ash by carefully ignit- 
ing the substance dried at 212° F. will always have first 
to be executed. The content of carbonic acid in the ash 
is to be determined and deducted from the per cent, of 
ash. 

About 10 grammes of the ash are used for an aqueous 
extract, and the calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium, 
sodium, sulphuric acid, and chlorine contained therein 
are determined. The residue remaining from the 
aqueous extract is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric 
acid, and, after separating the silica, alumina, ferric oxide, 
calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium, sodium, and phos- 
phoric acid are determined. The residue remaining 
thereby is, after boiling with sodium carbonate solution, 
designated as sand. 

11. Extraction of the soil with carbonated icater. — 
Pour over 1500 grammes of air-dry soil in a flask 6000 
cubic centimeters of water J saturated with carbonic 
acid, less the quantity of water escai)ing from the air- 
dry soil at 212° F. Then close the flask and shake. 
The water ^ saturated with carbonic acid is prepared by 
completely saturating, at an ordinary temperature and 
with a medium pressure of air, 1500 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water with carbonic acid and diluting with 
4500 cubic centimeters of distilled water. The soil 
remains in contact with the water for three days, the 
flask being frequently rolled upon a soft support. The 
soil is then allowed to settle and 5000 cubic centimeters 



124 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

of the supernatant clear fluid arc siphoned off in two 
separate portions, one of 1000 and the other of 4000 cubic 
centimeters. The two fluids arc then allowed to stand 
quietly in hermetically closed flasks for twenty-four 
hours, when they are filtered off clear without stirring 
up the sediment. During this operation the filtering 
funnel should be kept covered. 

The 1000 cubic centimeters, which correspond to 250 
grammes of soil dried at 212° F., are now gradually 
evaporated to dryness in a small weighed platinum dish 
upon the water-bath. The residue is dried in the air- 
bath at 257° F., and quickly weighed after cooling in 
the desiccator. By this means the sum total of the sub- 
stances dissolved in the carbonated water is found. The 
mass is then moderately ignited, several times moistened 
with ammonium carbonate, again ignited, cooled in the 
desiccator, and once more weighed. In this manner the 
sum total of the refractory inorganic salts is obtained, 
and their content of carbonic acid can best be de- 
termined by the method given on p. 64. The determina- 
tion of the carbonic acid being finished, the fluid in the 
flask may further be used for the qualitative determina- 
tion of the presence of the various constituents. 

The greater portion of the carbonated aqueous ex- 
tract (4000 cubic centimeters corresponding to 1000 
grammes of the soil dried at 212° F.) is also filtered. 
In case the filtrate is not entirely clear, E. W^olff pro- 
poses to evaporate .the fluid to 400 cubic centimeters, 
slightly over-saturate it, while still hot, Avith hydro- 
chloric acid, and to filter off the small quantity of in- 
soluble clay. To destroy the humus substances, as well 
as to oxidize the iron, the fluid is compoinulcd with a 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 125 

few drops of nitric acid and evaporated to pulverulent 
dryness by heating it in a porcelain crucible, several 
times moistenino; the substance with water when it be- 
comes dry, and rubbing it to a powder with a glass 
pestle. The mass is then moistened with hydrochloric 
acid, and, after adding boiling water, the fluid is filtered 
to separate silica. In the filtrate, alumina, ferric oxide, 
phosphoric acid, calcareous earth, magnesia, sulphuric 
acid, potassium, and sodium are determined. 

The fluid is now heated to boiling and compounded 
with ammonia slightly in excess. A weighable precipi- 
tate oi ferric oxide will only be formed with acid humus 
soils. If, however, the precipitate is too small to be 
weighed, redissolve it by adding a few drops of hydro- 
chloric acid, compound the boiling-hot solution with a 
few drops of very dilute ferric chloride solution and 
again precipitate with ammonia slightly in excess. The 
precipitate contains the entire quantity of phosphoric 
acid dissolved in the carbonated water as ferric phos- 
phate (FePO^). Filter the precipitate oflF, wash it with 
hot water until a drop running ofi' from the funnel is no 
longer made turbid by silver nitrate, and then detach it 
as much as possible from the filter with a feather. The 
particles of the precipitate still adhering to the filter are 
dissolved with hot dilute nitric acid by allowing the 
latter to fall drop by drop upon the filter and placing 
the beaker containing the detached precipitate under- 
neath the filter. Wash the filter with hot water. Then 
heat the fluid in the beaker and add nitric acid until the 
precipitate is dissolved. The solution is evaporated to 
a small quantity in a porcelain dish and rinsed with as 
little water as possible into the beaker. 



126 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

Precipitafion of the jjhosjihoric acid with ammonium 
molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate. — 
The ammonium molybdate solution required for the pre- 
cipitation of the phosphoric acid is prepared as folloAvs : 
Dissolve 40 grammes of ammonium molybdate in 80 
cubic centimeters of concentrated ammonia and 320 
cubic centimeters of distilled water and slowly pour the 
fluid, with constant stirring, into a mixture of 480 cubic 
centimeters of nitric acid (1.18 specific gravity), and 120 
cubic centimeters of water. 

Of the solution thus prepared, add an abundant 
qnantity to the fluid to be examined, and let the mixture 
stand for twelve hours at 104° F. During this time the 
phosjjhoric acid separates as ammonium phospho- 
molybdate in the form of a yellow granular crystalline 
precipitate. Now siphon off a small portion of the 
supernatant clear fluid, and test it as to whether a pre- 
cipitate is again formed after once more adding am- 
monium molybdate solution and standing for some time. 
If such is the case, the test sample is again added to the 
whole, and, after adding fresh ammonium molybdate 
solution, it is again allowed to stand for twelve hours at 
104° F. 

The supernatant fluid is then poured off through a 
small filter, and the precipitate in the beaker repeatedly 
washed, by decanting, with a mixture of 100 parts of 
ammonium molybdate solution, 20 parts of nitric acid 
of 1.2 specific gravity, and 80 parts of water. To be 
sure that all the iron is in the filtrate, the wash-water 
running ofl' from the filter towards the end of the opera- 
tion should not yield a precipitate on being comjjoinided 
with ammonia. Now place the beaker containing the 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 127 

washed precipitate under the funnel, dissolve any particles 
of the precipitate adhering to the filter in a few drops 
of concentrated ammonia, and wash the filter with a 
mixture of one volume ammonia and three volumes 
water. If the precipitate in the beaker does not dissolve 
entirely clear, the fluid must be again poured through 
the filter before washing the latter. To the clear filtrate 
add, drop by drop, hydrochloric acid until the yellow 
precipitate formed thereby only disappears after repeated 
shaking. Then precipitate the phosphoric acid as am- 
monium magnesium phosphate with magnesia mixture. 
The magnesia mixture is prepared as follows : Dissolve 
1 part of crystallized magnesium sulphate and 2 parts of 
ammonium chloride in 8 parts of water, and 4 parts of 
ammonia. The precipitate is washed, as given on p. 71, 
with ammoniacal water, dried, ignited, and weighed as 
magnesium pyrophosphate. To calculate from this the 
phosphoric acid, multiply the weighed quantity by the 
factor 0.64. 

Determination of the pliosphoric acid as ammonium 
phospho-molyhdate, according to R. Finkener. — By this 
method the precipitation of the phosphoric acid with 
magnesia mixture is avoided, and it has the further ad- 
vantage that even in the presence of very small quanti- 
ties of phosphoric acid, a comparatively large weight is 
brought upon the balance. 

When the phosphoric acid has been precipitated, after 
adding 25 per cent, ammonium nitrate, with ammonium 
molybdate in the manner described on p. 126, the precip- 
itate is brought upon a small filter and washed with a 
solution of ammonium nitrate, which contains 20 per 
cent, of the salt and is previously mixed with -^-q its 
volume of nitric acid. Washing; is finished when the 



128 



THE EXAJriXATTON OF SOILS. 



solution running off is no longer immediately colored by 
yellow prussiate of potash. 

AVben the greater portion of the ammonium nitrate 
has been removed by washing with som€ water, the i)re- 
cipitate is injected by means of a wash-bottle from the 
filter into a weighed porcelain crucible. What adheres 
to the paper is detacJied with heated liquid ammonia, 
and after concentrating this solution by evaporating and 
oversatu rating it with nitric acid, it is also brought into 
the crucible. After the fluid is first evaporated upon 

Via. IS. 




the water-bath, the crucible is placed by means of a 
triangle upon Finkener's drying stand (Fig. 18), in 
which the flame is cooled off by three different wire 
screens placed one above the other. Only a moderate 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 129 

heat is required for the expulsion of the ammonium 
nitrate. The operation is finished when a watch-crystal 
placed over the crucible is not tarnished. The ammo- 
nium phospho-molybdate remaining in the crucible con- 
tains for 1 part of phosphoric acid (P^^s) ^'^ parts of 
molybdic acid (M^Og). It is placed, while hot, in the desic- 
cator filled with sulphuric acid and, when cold, quickly 
weighed since it is hygroscopic. To calculate the salt 
to the equivalent quantity of phosphoric acid (PgOj) nnd- 
tiply the weighed quantity by the factor 0.03794. 

Further treatment of the soil extract prepared loith car- 
bonated water. — The filtrate from the precipitate with 
ammonia (p. 125) is heated to boiling and the calcareous 
earth precipitated with ammonium oxalate in the manner 
given on p. 68 et seq. 

After the calcium oxalate has been filtered off, evapo- 
rate the fluid to about 10 cubic centimeters, compound 
it with a few drops of hydrochloric acid until it shows 
an acid reaction, and precipitate the sulphuric add with 
barium chloride solution without, however, adding too 
large an excess of it. The precipitate, consisting of 
barium sulphate, is treated in the same manner as 
described on p. 109 for the determination of sulphuric 
acid in the aqueous extract. 

In the filtrate the excess of barium sulphate is pre- 
cipitated by a few drops of sulphuric acid, the precipi- 
tate filtered off and the fluid after being neutralized with 
ammonia is evaporated, with constant stirring, to dry- 
ness in a platinum dish. The ammoniacal salts are 
then expelled by igniting, the residue is taken up with 
some hydrochloric acid and water, and filtered in case 
some more barium sulphate has separated. From the 
9 



130 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS, 

very concentrated solution, the magnesia is precipitated 
by ammonium carbonate (compare p. 104 et seq.). Weigh 
tlic alkalies as sulphates and separate the potassium by 
precipitating with platinum chloride and taking up the 
precipitate with the mixture of hydrochloric acid, alco- 
hol and ether, in the manner described on p. 108. 

III. Extraetion of the soil icith cold concentrated hy- 
drochloric acid. — Pour over 200 grammes of aii'-dry 
soil in a cylinder, which can be closed with a glass 
sto]>per, 400 grannnes of pure concentrated hydrochloric 
acid and allow the latter to act upon the substance at 
the ordinary temperature of a room, for forty-eight hours, 
shaking the cylinder frequently. The hydrochloric acid 
is then much diluted, poured off through a filter, and 
the soil washed by repeatedly decanting it wath hot 
water until a drop running off from the funnel shows 
no reaction with silver nitrate. 

The separation of the dissolved substances is effected 
in the same manner as with soil treated with boiling- 
concentrated hydrochloric acid. 

IV. Extraction of the soil icith boiling concentrated 
hydrochloric acid. — Only in a few cases will it be pos- 
sible to simultaneously prepare the four extracts men- 
tioned on p. 102, they requiring much labor and time. 
Hence, as a rule, the experimenter will have to be satis- 
fied with one extract, and, in such a case, it is best to 
chose that with boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid, 
which, as previously mentioned, contains the sum-total 
of all the plant-nourishing substances available at the 
present and becoming active in thefidurc. 

Of sand soils weigh out 100 gi-ammes, and of clay 
>soils 50 grammes of the air-dry fine soil. Bring the 



PLANT-XOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. 



131 



Fig. 19. 



weighed out quantity into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask 
and pour over it, in the first case, 200, and in the latter, 
100 cubic centimeters of pure concentrated hydrochloric 
acid of 1.15 specific gravity. Put the boiling flask 
upon a sand-bath (Fig. 19), and place u[)on it a small 
funnel, o, with a short tube, using, however, the pre- 
caution of inserting between the neck of the flask and 
the funnel a small piece of a glass rod, 6, bent at an 
angle of 45°, so that in boiling the 
vapors can escape unrestrained, and 
the scattering of the fluid through the 
funnel tube is prevented. 

The soil is boiled with the acid 
exactly one hour. Then add a large 
excess of distilled water, stir with a 
glass rod, and allow the soil to settle. 
AVhen the supernatant fluid is clear, 
pour it off through a filter and wash 
the soil in the boiling flask by decant- 
ing with hot water until a drop run- 
ning off from the filter shoAvs no 
turbidity with silver nitrate. 

The clear filtrate is compounded 
with some nitric acid, and, to separate 
the dissolved silica, is then brought to dusty dryness in 
a porcelain dish upon the water-bath. The separation 
of the silica must be very carefully done, as otherwise 
it will erroneously affect the determination of phosphoric 
acid. 

The filtrate from the silica is compounded hot with 
ammonia, the ferric oxide and alumina being thereby 
precipitated. Then add a few drops of acetic acid 




]32 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

imtil the Huid shows a slight acid reaction and boil 
again. The precipitate which, as a rule, is considerable, 
is brought upon two large rapidly filtering filters, 
thoroughly washed with hot water, and then detached as 
much as possible from the filters with the aid of a 
feather. The particles adhering to the filters, as well 
as the detached precipitate, are dissolved in hot dilute 
nitric acid. Bring the solution into a flask of 500 cubic 
centimeters capacity, and take 100 cubic centimeters of 
it by means of a pipette for the determination of iron 
and alumina. The remaining 400 cubic centimeters are 
evajjorated to a small quantity and used^ for the de- 
termination of phosphoric acid according to the method 
described on p. 127. In the 100 cubic centimeters, pre- 
cipitate the ferric oxide and alumina with ammonia, 
weigh the ignited precipitate, dissolve it in hydrochloric 
acid or potassium sulphate, and determine the iron by 
titration with potassium permanganate solution in the 
manner described on p. 87 et seq. 

The total filtrate of the principal precipitate is com- 
pounded with ammonium sul})hide, whereby the man- 
ganese is precipitated as manganous sulphide. The 
precipitate is filtered, washed with water containing am- 
monium sulphide, and, after drying, incinerated, together 
with the filter, in a weighed crucible. Now add some 
flowers of sulphur, heat the crucible in a current of 
hydrogen and let it also cool in it. The green residue 
in the crucible consists of mangauous sulphide (M„S), 
M'hich, after cooling in the desiccator, is weighed. The 
equivalent quantity of manganous oxide is obtained by 
multiplying the manganous sulphide by the factor 
0.877. 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 133 

The filtrate from the precipitate with ammonium sul- 
phide is over-saturated with hydrochloric acid and boiled 
until the, at first, milky sulphur separated, balls together 
on the bottom, and the supernatant fluid is clear. The 
sulphur is filtered oif, the filter washed, and the calcare- 
ous earth, magnesia, and alkalies are determined in the 
filtrate in the manner gis'en on p. 104 et seq. 

If the quantity of silica separated in soluble form in 
the extract with hydrochloric acid is to be detern^ined, 
the silica which has been dissolved in the hydrochloric 
acid and separated in an insoluble form in evaporating the 
latter, must be weighed as well as that remaining in solu- 
ble modification in the soil. For this purpose repeatedly 
boil the soil-residue from the extract with hydrochloric 
acid with concentrated sodium carbonate solution to 
Avhich some soda lye has been added. Then filter off the 
soil and over-saturate the filtrate with hydrochloric acid 
by covering it with a watch crystal and slowly adding 
the acid drop by drop. The fluid is then evoporated to 
dusty dryness, the residue taken up with hydrochloric 
acid, diluted with distilled water and the silica, separated 
in an insoluble form, ignited and weighed in the manner 
described on p. 97 et seq. 

B. Determination of some important substances for the 
nourishment of plants, which can either not, or only 
partially, be determined in the soil-extracts. 1. Determina- 
tion of the total nitrogen in the soil. a. Kjeldahl's 
method. — This process was devised by J. Kjeldahl, of 
Copenhagen. It is based upon the theory that the sub- 
stance, which is to be used dry, is so altered by boiling 
for some time with an abundant quantity of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid, that by the succeeding oxidation 



134 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

with dry pulv'erulent potassium permanganate, all the 
nitrogen is converted into ammonia. A modified pro- 
cess adapted for the investigation of soils is as fol- 
lows : — 

The substance dried at 212° F. is poured from a long 
thin weighing tube into a boiling flask of 100 cubic 
centimeters capacity, care being had that no substance 
remains adhering in the neck. With humus and peat 
soil 0.5 to 1 gramme of the finely pulverized soil is used, 
and with humus sand soils and fat and clammy soils 2 
to 5 grammes. Then add 20 cubic centimeters of a 
mixture of 16 volumes of pure concentrated sulphuric 
acid, 4 of pure fuming sulphuric acid, and 2 grammes 
of anhydrous phosphoric acid, place the boiling flask in 
an oblique position upon the sand-bath and boil the 
fluid until it has acquired a wine-yellow color. Then 
remove the flame, and, after cooling somewhat, add to 
the solution, while still hot, an excess of dry pulverulent 
potassium permanganate in small portions until the 
solution has acquired a blue-green color. After cooling, 
the solution is brought into a boiling flask holding one 
liter (Fig. 20), and diluted with distilled water to 200 
cubic centimeters. The boiling flask is connected by 
means oi' a rubber cork with an obliquely ascending 
glass tube expanding to a bulb, which enters a glass 
receiver. From the other end of the receiver a tube 
leads into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask which contains 
some pure dilute hydrochloric acid in which, however, 
the tube need not to dip. Now open the rubber cork, add 
to the fluid 80 cubic centimeters of soda lye which con- 
tains 50 grammes of caustic soda, and quickly replace 
the cork upon the boiling flask. Now distil the fluid 



PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 



135 



for half an liour, (luring which time the ammonia is 
completely expelled and absorbed by the hydrochloric 
acid in the receiver. The hydrochloric acid is evapo- 
rated to dryness, rinsed with 10 cubic centimeters of 



Fis. 20. 




distilled water into the developing vessel of the Knop- 
Wajyner azotometcr and the nitrogen determined 
volumetrically by decomposing the sal ammoniac with 
bromine lye (compare p. 118). 

b. Determination of the nitrogen by combustion icith 
soda lime. — For this determination use a tube of hard 




51fitlU. 



glass of the form shown in Fig. 21. Before drawing 
the tube out it is tlioroughlv cleansed, and, after heating, 



136 ' THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 

dried by sucking out tlie air. Now first slip into the 
tube a loosely fitting plug of asbestos, previously ignited, 
and then a layer of 3 to 4 cubi(! centimeters of soda 
lime free from nitric acid previously moderately heated 
in a porcelain dish, and which, for use, should have a 
temperature of 104° to 122° F. Now weigh out 1 to 
10 grammes of fine soil finely i)ulverized and dried at 
212° ¥., and mix it in a porcelain mortar with some 
warm, finely pulverized soda lime and about J gramme 
of pure cane sugar. Introduce the mixture, while warm, 
into the combustion tube, forcible pressure being care- 
fully avoided. The mixture is followed by a layer of 
soda lime used to rinse the mortar. Then add enough 
granulated soda lime to fill the tube to about 4 centi- 
meters of the open end and place another plug of ignited 
asbestos at the end. In the tube is inserted, by means 
of a rubber cork, the end of a Will-Varrentrapp ai)])a- 
ratus, which is previously filled, by means of a pipette, 
to one-quarter of its volume with pure distilled water, 
and 1 cubic centimeter of pure concentrated hydrochloric 
acid, as shown in Fig. 21. The hydrochloric acid used 
must first be tested as to its purity ; and should leave no 
residue after evaporating with platinum chloride and 
taking up the mass with alcohol. 

Before placing the tube in the combustion (uniace, a 
free passage is formed fi)r the evolved gases by a few 
gentle taps. The tube is then gradually heated com- 
mencing at the fore part nearest the cork and j)rogress- 
ing slowly towards the tail. Care must be taken to 
keep the fore part of the tube at a moderate red heat 
throughout the process. The addition of sugar is claimed 
to promote the conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia. 



PLANT-NOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. 137 

Combustion is finished when no more black carbonace- 
ous particles are perceptible in the substance. Now 
break off the point of the ascendino; tube and at the same 
time put out the gas. Then by means of an aspirator 
connected by rubber tubing with the end of the AVill- 
Varrentrapp apparatus draw a slow current of air 
through the apparatus. Now pour the fluid from the 
Will-Varrentrapp apparatus into a porcelain dish, rinse 
out wdth water, and evaporate nearly to dryness. By 
now taking the residue up with some water, the greater 
portion of tarry substances formed by combustion re- 
mains in the dish. The fluid containing the sal ammo- 
niac is evaporated nearly to dryness in a small dish 
upon the water-bath, and the nitrogen determined either 
volumetrically in the Knop- Wagner azotometer (see p. 
118 etse<]) or weighed as ammonio-platinum (see p. 117). 
2. Determination of the ammonia contained in the 
soil. — As a rule soils contain but small quantities of 
ammoniacal gas and ammoniacal salts, they being gener- 
ally rapidly oxidized to nitric acid. To determine them, 
it is best to fill the soil taken from the field in its natu- 
ral moist condition into a wide-necked glass flask, close 
the latter hermetically and use the soil for analysis as 
soon as possible after being taken from the field. The 
methods based upon distilling the soil compounded with 
water with soda lye or manganic oxide and catching the 
escaping ammonia in a receiver do not yield accurate 
results, since after the expulsion of the ammonia already 
formed, the nitrogenous organic substances are also at- 
tacked and constantly yield small quantities of ammonia. 
The following method can, however, be recommendcid : 



138 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 

Schlwsin(/'s modified method for the accurate determi- 
nation of the ammonia in thesoil. — Introduce 100 grammes 
of the soil into a liter flask, and at the same time deter- 
mine, from the loss, the water which escapes at 212° F. 
from about 20 grammes of the sample used, so that later 
on the content of ammonia can be calculated to sub- 
stance dried at 212° F. 

Pour over the soil in the flask, 100 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water, and add from a burette concentrated 
hydrochloric acid, until any carbonic acid])resent is com- 
j)letely expelled, and the fluid contains an excess of hy- 
drochloric acid. To the measured quantity of hydro- 
chloric acid, previously tested as to its purity by eva])o- 
rating with platinum chloride, add sufficient distilled 
water to make exactly 400 cubic centimeters of fluid. 
Then close the liter flask with a rubber cork, shake vig- 
orously and allow the soil to settle, for which 6 to 1 2 
hours are required. The supernatant clear fluid is then 
quickly poured through a dry, folded filter, and 200 cubic 
centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to 5 grammes 
of the soil used, are taken out with a pipette. Evapo- 
rate these 200 cubic centimeters to 10 cubic centimeters 
in a room free from ammonia and rinse them into a half 
liter flask, so that the fluid amounts to about 100 cubic 
centimeters. Now add concentrated soda lye until it is 
present in excess, introduce some granulated zinc into 
the flask and distil ofl^ one-half of the fluid through a 
receiver into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask, which con- 
tains some dilute hydrochloric acid for the reception of 
the ammoniacal gas. AYhen distillation is finished, the 
distillate is evajjorated nearly to dryness and the nitro- 



INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 139 

gen volumetrically determined in the Kuop- Wagner 
azotometer. 

If, now, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen calculated 
to the normal condition are multiplied by the factor 
0.001525, the content in grammes of ammoniacal gas 
(NH3) in 50 grammes of the soil used is obtained. 



VIII. 

DETERMINATION OF THE SUBSTANCES IN THE 
SOIL INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 

The presence of certain substances in the soil may 
essentially influence the growth of plants, and in many 
cases render it even entirely impossible. Among these 
so-called poisons to cultivated plants may be included : 
Humic acids showing an acid reaction, too large quantities 
of common salt, free sulphuric acid, ferrous sulphate, 
and iron bisulphide. In many cases the establishment 
of the presence of these substances suffices without the 
necessity of their quantitative determination. Their 
presence can be partially shown in preparing the aqueous 
extract for the determination of the plant-nourishing 
substances. 

1. Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the 
soil. — If the aqueous extract of a humus soil shows a 
distinct acid reaction towards litmus-paper ; and when 
the presence of sulphuric acid cannot be established by 
barium chloride, the acid will have to be traced back to 
humus substances. Soils showing this phenomenon 
generally also suffer from too much moisture, and the 



140 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

field will have to be sufficiently drained by ditches or 
raised by carting sand u])()U it. Liming and marling 
will also be of advantage for fixing the humic acids. 

2. Determination, of the content of common salt in the 
soil. — A^oelker's and Grandeau's investigations have 
shown that a soil becomes unproductive when its con- 
tent of common salt exceeds 0.1 per cent. In discussing 
the aqueous extract for the estimation of the plant- 
nourishing substances, the determinations of the content 
of chlorine and sodium have been considered. In most 
cases the quantity of chlorine found can be directly 
calculated to sodium. 

3. Determination of the ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric 
acid, and iron disulphide. The occurrence of ferrous 
sulphate (greeii vitriol) or free sidphuric acid is dependent 
on the presence of iron disulphide in the soil. Iron 
pyrites which, according to Fleischer's investigations, 
are occasionally found in the soil, yield by their oxida- 
tion through oxygen free sulphuric acid and ferrous sul- 
phate = FeSj -I- 7 O = SO3 4- FeSO^. These combina- 
tions will always be formed when not sufficient bases, 
especially lime, are present for their saturation. The 
presence of iron disulphide in the sands under peat 
moors has several times caused complete failures in the 
establishment of the Rimpau moor-dam cultivation, in 
which such sand was brought upon the moor. Hence, 
it is of importance to examine the moor soil to be 
cultivated, as well as the sand to be used, in regard to 
these injurious substances. 

In the Prussian moor experimental station at Bremen, 
the following methods are used : — 

Of the moor or sand to be examined, an aqueous 



IXJUEIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 141 

extract is prepared and tested for the presence of ferrous 
oxide by adding solution of red prussiate of potash. 
The presence of ferrous oxide is immediately recognized 
by the blue coloration of the fluid. Any acid reaction 
is determined by litmus paper. 

In the aqueous extract of 100 grammes of soil, potas- 
sium, sodium, calcareous earth, magnesia, ferrous or 
ferric oxide, chlorine, and sulphuric acid are determined, 
and the bases calculated to the acids present. The 
excess of sulphuric acid can be designated as free. 

a. Determination of the content of sulphur' in the soil by 
ignition. — Ignite 20 grammes of the fine soil extracted 
with water and dried in a Bohemian glass tube in a cur- 
rent of air, whereby any iron pyrites present are decom- 
posed and the sulphur is transformed into sulphuric and 
sulphurous acids. 

First slip a plug of glass-wool into the tube (Fig. 22), 
then pour the substance loosely upon it and insert another 
plug of glass-wool. The tail end of the tube communi- 
cates with a vessel filled with water which serves for 
controlling the current of air to be used in the combus- 
tion. The fore part of the tube is drawn out, bent at 
a right angle downward and connected with an absorb- 
ing vessel filled with potash lye free from sulphuric acid. 
By means of the aspirator attached to the absorbing 
vessel a current of air can be constantly conducted 
through the combustion tube. Between the absorbing 
vessel and the aspirator is first a funnel tube with glass 
beads moistened with potash lye, and next a bulb tube 
containing some neutral litmus solution, which during 
the operation should not change its color. The tube is 
placed in a combustion furnace and gradually heated to 



142 



THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. 



a reel licat, comnioncing at the tail and progressing 
slowly towards tlie fore part. When the tube is ignited 
throughout its whole leugth, the })roduets of distillation 
condensed in the drawn out portion of the tube arc 




finally, by means of a flame, forced down as far as pos- 
sible, so that -when the operation is finished they can be 
readily rinsed out with the wash-bottle. The potash lye 
is oversaturated with hydrochloric acid, compounded 
with bromine, to convert the sulphurous acid into sul- 
phuric acid, and the bromine removed by boiling. Now 
precipitate the sulphuric acid with barium chloride, ob- 
serving the precautionary measures given on p. 110, since 
the heavy precipitate in the concentrated common salt 
solution generally carries alkali down with it. AVith 
peats it is advisable to ignite the substance in a current 
of oxygen. 

By igniting the soil in a tube the entire quantity of 
sulpjmric acid contained in it is not obtained, but in the 



INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 143 

investigations of the moor experimental station at 
Bremen this metliod has proved itself as sufficiently 
accurate. 

From the above-mentioned methods, Fleischer calcu- 
lates the sulphuric acid present in a form injurious to 
plants as follows : — 

1. Present as free acid (the residue of sulphuric acid 
which remains after calculating the acid to the bases of 
the aqueous extract). 

2. Sulphuric acid contained in ferrous sulphate (calcu- 
lated from the content of ferrous oxide in the aqueous 
extract). 

3. Sulphuric acid which may be formed from iron 
disulphide (obtained by igniting the soil extracted with 
water). 

6.' Determinalion of the content of sulphur in the soil by 
disintegration with bromine. — Fuse 5 to 10 grammes of 
the finely powdered soil extracted with water with 20 
cubic centimeters of distilled water and 5 cubic centime- 
ters of pure bromine free from sulphuric acid in a Bohe- 
mian glass tube, and gradually heat, with frequent 
shaking, to 158° F. upon the water bath. By the bro- 
mine the sulphur present is oxidized to sulphuric acid. 
When eutirely cold the tube is opened in the manner 
described on p. 84, the contents are rinsed into a beaker, 
diluted with water, and heated until an odor of bromine 
is no longer perceptible. Now filter the soil off, and 
precipitate the sulphuric acid in the filtrate in the above- 
mentioned manner. The sulphuric acid obtained from 
the aqueous extract is then deducted from the total sul- 
phuric acid, and the rest calculated to sulphur by multi- 
plying it by the factor 0.4. 



144 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

In the presence of large quantities of gypsmn tin's 
method is not available, as, in this case, all the sulphates 
are not extracted by the aqueous extract. 



IX. 

DETERiMINATION OF VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF 
THE SOIL WHICH ARE DEPENDENT PARTIALLY 
ON PHYSICAL AND PARTIALLY ON CHEMICAL 
CAUSES. 

A. Weight of the soil. — We distinguish the specific gra v- 
ity, and the absolute volume or liter iceight of the soil. For 
determining them the following methods are suitable : — 

1. Determination of the specific gravity. — A thin glass 
flask of about 100 cubic centimeters capacity, and pro- 
vided with a ground-glass stopper, drawn out to an open 
capillary tube, is filled up to the end of the capillary 
tube with distilled water of 60.8° F. The flask being 
carefully cleansed with a piece of leather, is then accu- 
rately weighed upon a chemical balance. The flask is 
then emptied, and a weighed quantity (about 20 gram- 
mes) of the soil dried at 212° F., and boiled with dis- 
tilled water is, when cold, introduced, and sufiicient 
water of 60.8° F. added to entirely refill the flask. It 
is then weighed. By adding the weight of the soil used 
to the weight of the flask filled with water and deduct- 
ing therefrom the weight of the flask filled with water 
and the soil, the difference expresses the weight of a 
volume of water which is equal to that of the quantity 
of soil nsed. Since, by this means the proportion of the 



PROPERTIES OB^ THE SOIL. 145 

weiglits of equal volumes of soil and water are fouud, 
the specific gravity of the soil can, therefrom, be de- 
duced by dividing the weight of the soil with the weight 
of the water it has displaced. 

2. Determination of the volume ivcight. — The volume 
or liter weight can be determined in two ways, by 
bringing the soil into a measuring vessel, either in an 
air-dry state, or saturated with water. 

Only the first-mentioned method is, according to R. 
Heinrich's experiments, required for soils containing but 
little humus, it yielding nearly the same results as 
saturation with water. 

For this purpose fill a measuring cylinder of 100 
cubic centimeters capacity, with air-dry soil pulverized 
as uniformly as possible, by introducing the soil in 
small portions and compacting it by gently tapping the 
vessel upon a cork support until a diminution in volume 
no longer takes place. According to the kind of soil, 
one-half to one hour will be required for this process, 
care being taken that during the operation the measur- 
ing vessel is always filled with soil up to the mark. De- 
termine at the same time with a special sample the 
hygroscopic water which escapes at 212° F., the volume 
weight ascertained by weighing being always referred 
to substance dried at 212° F. 

By dividing the volume weight of the soil with the 
weight of the same volume of water the apparent 
specific gravity of the soil is obtained. 

By now dividing this apparent specific gravity with 

the specific gravity of the soil, the quotient expresses 

the porosity of the soil, /. e., the space which in soils in 

a dry state (its volume being put = 1) is occupied by 

10 



146 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

particles of air. This porosity is frequently calculated 
to 100 parts by volume of the soil. 

To determine the volume of a soil completely satu- 
rated with water, vigorously shake, according to E. 
Wolff, 25 to 30 grammes of finely pulverized, air-dry 
soil, whose volume Aveight is known, in a graduated 
tube with water containing 1 per cent, of sal ammoniac, 
and allow to settle. The volume is read off after twenty- 
four hours. lu the calculation the proportion existing 
between the volume of soil in a saturated state and the 
same volume of soil in a dry state is fixed by taking 
the latter as the unit. 

B. Behavior of tlie soil towards nourishing substances. 
— The power of tiie soil to retain separate substances 
presented to it in solution is termed absorption, and is 
dependent partially on chemical, and partially on ])hy- 
sical causes, though opinions differ in this respect. It has 
been ascertained that the soil takes up more from concen- 
trated than from more dilute solutions, and that the 
absorbed substances can be again partially withdrawn 
from the soil by washing with much water. The content 
of luuuus and clay has great influence upon the ab- 
sorbent ])o\ver of the soil, the latter, it is claimed, being 
also essentially increased by zeolitic minerals. 

The greater or smaller absorbent power of a soil being 
generally in direct proportion to its fertility, a determi- 
nation of this important property is of great value, since 
it has a bearing on practical agriculture, especially as to 
the rational treatment and application of farm-yard 
manure and the economical use of artificial manures. 

In order to imitate nature as closely as possible, very 
dilute nourishing solutions must be used for such experi- 
ments. 



PEOPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 147 

1. Testing the absorbent pou-er of the soil ivith j^ or 
y-^ normal solutions. — For making these experiments 
the following salts are very suitable : Ammonium chloride, 
potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulp)hate, 
and monocalcium phosphate. 

Ammonium chloride, calcium nitrate, and magnesium 
sulphate can be readily prepared as chemically pure 
anhydrous salts, and in this state weighed in a closed 
weighing tube. The y^^ normal solution of these salts 
is prepared as follows : Weigh out exactly jig- of their 
molecular weight in grammes, which is equivalent to 
jIq of the atomic weight of hydrogen = 1, and dissolve it 
in 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled water of 60.8° F. 
The quantities of salt required for 1 liter are as follows : 
Ammonium chloride= 5.35 grammes, potassium nitrate 
= 10.11 grammes, magnesium sulphate=6.00 grammes. 

Since calcium nitrate forms a very deliquescent salt, 
and, therefore, cannot be directly weighed, a solution 
somewhat more concentrated than -^-^ normal solution is 
prepared. In every 20 cubic centimeters the content of 
calcium monoxide is determined by gravimetric analysis, 
and the mean of two determinations taken if their first 
decimals agree. Now calculate the quantity of nitric acid 
equivalent to the calcium monoxide, and compute with 
how many cubic centimeters of water the solution pre- 
l^ared will have to be diluted in order to contain 8.2 
grammes of calcium nitrate in 1 liter. 

To determine the absorption of phosphoric acid, mono- 
calcium prosphate (CaH4[POj2+H20) is very suitably 
used, this soluble phosphorus salt being introduced into 
the soil by the superphosphates of commerce. For its 
preparation Fesca proposes the following method : Com- 



148 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

pound a solution of commercial sodium phosphate with 
glacial acetic acid, precipitate it with calcium chloride 
solution, and wash the precipitate by decanting until the 
wash water shows no reaction with silver nitrate. Then 
bring the precii)itate in a moist state into cold concen- 
trated phosphoric acid until saturated. From the filtered 
solution, in a heated room, the monocalcium phosphate 
separates in crystals in 2 to 3 weeks. The crystals are 
rinsed oif with anhydrous ether, pressed between blotting 
paper, and dried over sulphuric acid. 

This salt being soluble without decomposition only in 
a very dilute solution, Fesca made his absorbent experi- 
ments with a iTj^o atomic solution which contained in 1 
liter of water 2.5 grammes of monocalcium phosphate 
corresponding to 1.4 grammes of phosphoric acid (P^Oj). 

The coarser admixtures of the soil possessing no ab- 
sorbent power, soil passed through a 0.5 millimeter sieve 
is always used. 

For the determination of the absorption, 50 grammes 
of the soil are left in contact with 200 cubic centimeters 
of the normal solution for 48 hours, with frequent 
shaking, at a uniform temperature of 62.6° F. The 
soil is then allowed to settle, and after pouring the super- 
natant clear solution through a dry filter, the substance, 
the absorbed quantity of which is to be learned, is deter- 
mined in 100 cubic centimeters of the filtrate. Experi- 
ments have shown that in most cases it suffices to deter- 
mine the absorbent power of the soil for potassium^ 
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. In order to proceed as 
uniformly as possible it is best to follow Fesca's pro- 
posal to use exactly 400 cubic centimeters of normal so- 
lution for 100 grammes of substance. The absorption- 



PEOPEETIES OF THE SOIL. 149 

coefficient, i. e., the. quantity of the absorbed substance in 
milligrammes is always referred to 100 grammes of air- 
dry fine earth (less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter). 

2. Determination of the absorption-coefficient according 
to Knop. — The following method for the rapid deter- 
mination of the absorption-coefficient has been proposed 
by Knop. He always uses for the experiments air-dry 
fine earth, by which he understands the portion of the 
soil which has passed through a wire sieve with 400 
meshes to the square centimeter. When using a sieve 
with round holes, the soil passed through holes 0.5 milli- 
meter in diameter, though somewhat coarser than the 
material used by Knop, will, according to Fesca, be 
found suitable for the experiment. 

In case the soil is very binding it is boiled with water 
and passed through a sieve with holes 0.5 millimeter in 
diameter with the aid of a stiff brush. For the experi- 
ment use 50 or 100 grammes of the perfectly air-dry fine 
earth and add 5 or 10 grammes of elutriated powdered 
chalk. Pour ov^er this mixture in a cylindrical vessel, 
which can be effectually closed, a solution of ammonium 
chloride so prepared that one cubic centimeter of it on 
being decomposed with sodium bromide evolves exactly 
1 cubic centimeter of nitrogen (in the normal state). 
Such a solution is obtained by dissolving exactly 5 
grammes of freshly sublimed sal ammoniac in 1040 cubic 
centimeters of water of 63.5° F. Now add to 50 
grammes of fine earth 100, or to 100 grammes of fine 
earth, 200 cubic centimeters of this sal ammoniac solu- 
tion and let the soil remain in contact with it, with fre- 
quent shaking, for 48 hours. Then allow the soil to 
settle and pour the supernatant clear fluid through a dry 



150 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

filter. From the filtrate take quickly, by means of a 
pipette, 20 or 40 cubic centimeters, and, after adding one 
drop of pure hydrochloric acid, evaporate nearly to dry- 
ness in a small porcelain dish upon the water-bath. 
Rinse the sal ammoniac remaining in the porcelain dish 
Avith 10 cubic centimeters of water into one of the divis- 
ions of the developing flask of the Knop- Wagner azot- 
ometer, decompose it with 50 cubic centimeters of bro- 
mine lye, and determine the nitrogen volumetrically. 
The volume of nitrogen read oif is, with due considera- 
tion of the tension of the aqueous vapor, the height of 
the barometer, and the temperature, calculated to the 
normal condition, and the nitrogen which remains ab- 
sorbed in the 60 cubic centimeters of fluid (see p. 118 
et seq.) added. In case the soil possesses no absorption, 20 
or 40 cubic centimeters of nitrogen must be obtained. 
Knop understands by absolution the loss of nitrogen 
which 200 cubic centimeters of sal ammoniac solution 
suffer Avhen in contact with 100 grammes of soil. 
Hence, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen determined in 
the azotometer must be deducted from the number of 
cubic centimeters of sal ammoniac solution used, and the 
difference calculated to 100 grammes of air-dry soil less 
than 0.5 millimeter in diameter. 

Forjudging the fertility of a soil the determination of 
Kuop's absorption-coefficient is of great value, since, 
though in exceptional cases an entirely unproductive soil 
may happen to possess great absorption, a soil with slight 
absorption can never be classed with very fertile soils. 
Knop considers absorptions of from to 5 degrees as 
insufficient, of from 5 to 10 as sufficient, while those of 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 151 

from 10 to 10 higher degrees progressively increase the 
vahie of tiie soil. 

In the valuation of the soil by absorption, it must 
always be borne in mind that it would be entirely wrong 
to judge the soil by this property alone, since a single 
property favorable for the soil may, as regards its value, 
be entirely nullified by others exerting an unfavorable in- 
fluence. 

C. Behavior of the soil towards ivater. 1. The poicer 
of retaining moisture in the soil. — The amount of moisture 
retained by a soil is generally in direct ratio to its con- 
tents of organic matter and its state of division. A 
proper degree of fineness in the particles of the soil is 
very important to obtain, especially if it is subjected to 
drought. During dry weather plants require a soil that 
is both retentive and absorptive of atmospheric moisture, 
and that soil which has this faculty will evidently raise 
a more vigorous crop than one without it. Regarding 
this condition of retaining moisture, the materials which 
are most influential in soils may be arranged in tlie fol- 
lowing order : Organic matter, marls, clays, loams, and 
sands. For the determination of the power of the soil 
to retain moisture the following methods may be men- 
tioned : — 

a. By experiments in the laboratory. — Pour over 100 
grammes of the air-dry fine soil 100 cubic centimeters 
of distilled water and effect the thorough saturation of the 
soil by stirring with a glass rod. Now rinse the soil 
with 100 cubic centimeters of water, admitted from a 
pipette, upon a filter satui'ated with water. The water 
ruunino; off is caught in a graduated cvlinder of 200 
cubic centimeters capacity, and when nothing more drips 



152 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

off, the quantity is read off in cubic centimeters. The 
difference between the quantity of water used (200 cubic 
centimeters) and that caught corresponds to the quantity 
of water retained by the soil. This behavior of the soil, 
Nvhich corresponds to its comparatively highest degree 
of looseness, has been designated the greatest or full 
capacity for ivater. It is calculated for 100 parts l)y 
weight, as well as for one liter of the soil dried at 
212° F. 

This full capacity may also be determined as follows: 
Stir up 100 grammes of the air-dry soil (less than 2 
millimeters in diameter) in the above-mentioned manner 
with any desired quantity of water in excess, and bring 
the whole with the aid of a wash-bottle into a previously 
weighed funnel in the point of which a small filter is in- 
serted. Cover the funnel with a watch crystal, and 
when, after standing for some time, no more water drips 
off, weigh it. Both these methods arc quite suitable for 
very pervious soils, but with very clayey or humus soils 
have the disadvantage that the dripping off of water 
already ceases when the mass in the filter is still in 
a thinly-pasty condition. 

Since, in order to obtain accurate comparable results, 
it is necessary for the samples of soil to be always in the 
same state of looseness, a method for laboratory experi- 
ments has been proposed by which this is sought to be 
attained as nearly as possible. For this purpose cylin- 
drical tubes of zinc sheet (Fig. 23), exactly 16 centi- 
meters long and 4 centimeters in diameter, are used. 
Their volume would, therefore, be 201.06 cubic centi- 
meters. The bottom of the tube consists of fine nickel wire 
gauze. Below the gauze a piece of zinc tube perforated 



PROl'ERTIES OF THE SOIL. 153 

on the sides is soldered over it. Before use a piece of 
moistened fine linen is placed upon the wire gauze 
bottom, and after tying a piece of rubber over the lower 
end, the lower portion of the cylinder is filled with water 

Fia;. 23. 




up to the gauze bottom. Ts^ow pour 200 cubic centimeters 
of water of 60.8° F. into the cylinder and make a mark 
exactly over the level of the water. The edge of zinc 
sheet above this mark is filed off, so that the cylinder 
with the linen rag has a capacity of exactly 200 cubic 
centimeters, and may, at the same time, be used for the 
determination of the volume weight of the soil. After 
placing the moist linen rag in the cylinder the latter is 
first weighed and then filled, constantly tapping it against 
a soft support, with the uniformly divided air-dry soil. 
The soil is finally accurately leveled with a knife. The 
cylinder is again weighed and then placed in a glass dish 
containing water, so that the gauze bottom dips about -4 
to 5 millimeters in the water. Over several tubes thus 
prepared a heavy glass bell shutting out the air is placed. 
In this manner the soil is then allowed to absorb water 
from below until saturated. According to the condition 
of the soil, its saturation with moisture will l^e observed 
on the surface in a longer or shorter time. The cylinders 
are allowed to remain under the glass bell until after 



154 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

repeated weighing, for which i)urpose they are placed in 
a shallow porcelain dish, they show an approximately 
constant Aveight. In weighing the temperature and 
height of the barometer are to be observed. The in- 
crease in weiglit corresponds to the total quantity of 
water absorbed which can be directly calculated for the 
volume of soil. 

Another method corresponding still more to the 
natural conditions has been used by A. Mayer. He 
uses two glass tubes 0.75 and 0.25 meter long, and 2 
centimeters in diameter. The upper shorter end is con- 
nected with the longer by a short rubber tube. The 
lower end of the long tube is closed by tying a piece of 
linen over it. The tubes are then filled with air-dry 
fine soil, they being gently tapped against a soft support 
during the operation. Then pour enough water upon 
the soil transitorily to establish its full capacity for 
water. By now waiting for some time the column of 
water sinks down. When no more water drips oif be- 
low, the rubber tube is disconnected, and on this place a 
sufficient quantity of soil is taken out, quickly weighed, 
and the water retained by it determined by drying at 
212° F. With the assistance of the apparent specific 
gravity (p. 145), the capacity for water of the weight of 
soil can be calculated to the volume of soil. To the 
smallest quantity of water retained by the soil thus 
obtained, Mayer has applied the term absolute capacity 
for water. On account of their very slight permea- 
bility this method cannot be used \\ith very clayey 
soils. 

h. Determination of the loater capacity of the mil in its 
natural bed in the open field. — The following process was 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 155 

devised by R. Heinrich, and deserves to be preferred to 
the experiments in the laboratory. To saturate the soil 
in its natural bed in the field, a round sheet-metal cylin- 
der, 20 cubic centimeters in diameter and 40 centimeters 
long, is used. The lower end of the cylinder consisting 
of strong sheet iron is sharpened and forced into the soil 
by means of the feet. For this purpose the cylinder is 
on both sides provided with a ledge, while to diminish 
the fall of the water to be poured in and not to mechan- 
ically reduce the soil to mud, a fine sieve is placed in the 
upper portion of the cylinder. When the cylinder has 
been firmly forced into the soil so that no water can run 
out on the side, it is entirely filled with water. The 
w'ater is then allowed to soak into the soil, the latter 
being covered with a board or sheet of parchment paper 
to protect it against evaporation and other influences. 
Sample taking is effected after 18 to 24 hours, since only 
then, according to Heinrich's experiments, the quantity 
of water retained remains constant for some time. After 
removing the cylinder, dig out with a spade the soil up 
to the centre of the spot terminated by the cylinder, 
using, however, the precaution of gently forcing the 
surface of the spade away from the sample to be taken. 
The uppermost layer of soil, from 2 to 4 centimeters 
thick, is removed, a piece cut out of the centre with a 
knife, brought into a powder flask of known weight and 
hermetically closed. The quantity of water which the 
soil retains is determined by continuous drying at 212° 
F. of the weighed sample in the flask and calculated to 
100 grammes as well as to 1 liter of soil. Small stones 
over 0.5 centimeter in diameter contained in the sample 
are later on sorted out and their weight deducted. The 



156 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

small quantity of water adhering to these stones need 
not be noticed. 

The method just described has later on been modified 
by Heinrich so that the soil is lifted out to the sub-soil 
and the cylinder placed upon the sub-soil. The top soil 
is then replaced in its former position outside the sheet- 
metal cylinder, while the rest of the soil is rubbed through 
the sieve with as little water as possible, so that all the 
coarser stones remain behind. For the determination of 
water the soil is, after about 24 hours, lifted out with a 
gouge-bit, the lower opening of which corresponds to a 
surface of 1 square centimeter. 

2. The evaporating power of the soil. — In determining 
the evaporating power of the soil, it must also be sought 
to imitate as closely as possible the natural conditions by 
exposing a sufficiently thick layer of soil to the alterna- 
ting influence of the direct rays of the sun and to the 
shade. It is best to use for this purpose the cylindrical zinc 
tubes with sieve bottoms described on p. 152. According 
to E. Wolff, they are surrounded with a narrow shell of 
thick paste-board, and, after being filled with soil in a 
state of full water capacity, are placed alongside each 
other in a small wooden box whose shiftable lid is pro- 
vided with apertures corresponding to 'the diameter of 
the cylinders, so that the lateral radiation of the sun is en- 
tirely shut out. This box is placed in the open air, the 
zinc tubes being taken from the paste-board shells every 
24 hours and their decrease determined by weighing, 
whereby the temperature of the surrounding air, its 
moisture, the height of the barometer at the time being, 
and the cloudy or cloudless state of the sky have to be 
noted. Since the weight of the air-dry soil used, as well 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 157 

as the largest quautity of water retained by it, is 
known, the evaporating capacity can be given either in 
per cent, of the substance dried at 212° F., or in per 
cent, of the total quantity of water absorbed. 

3. The filtrating poiver of the soil. — By the filtrating 
power of the soil is understood its property of allowing the 
water to percolate in a longer or shorter time. To de- 
termine this, a square zinc box 25 centimeters high and 
3 centimeters wide, provided below with a funnel- 
shaped piece with discharge-pipe, is, according to E. 
AVolfF, employed. The discharge-pipe of the funnel- 
shaped piece is closed with cotton, projecting somewhat 
from the pipe. The funnel-shaped piece is filled with 
coarse quartz sand. The cotton and sand are saturated 
with water, when the apparatus is weighed. Now bring 
into the box, tapping it constantly against a soft support, 
a layer of air-dry soil 16 centimeters thick, and weigh. 
Then pour water over the soil and again weigh the box 
when no more dripping oif takes place. Thus the full 
water capacity is obtained. 

Now pour upon the soil, without stirring it up, a layer 
of water 8 centimeters deep and determine how much 
time it takes until no more dripping off from the dis- 
charge-pipe takes place. The filtering capacity of this 
layer of soil 16 centimeters thick, and in a state of full 
water capacity for a column of water 8 centimeters high, 
is given in feet. Since, however, in repeating the ex- 
periment more time is almost always consumed in filter- 
ing than in the first trial, the experiment has to be repeated 
five or six times, and the mean of the results taken. 
For very clayey soils this method is not available, since 



158 



THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 



the M^ater poured upon the soil remains standing without 
running- otf. 

The experiment may also be made by each time allow- 
ing exactly 50 centimeters to drop into a graduated 
cylinder and noting the time thereby consumed. 

4. CnpiUary attraction of the soil. — To determine the 
capillary attraction by experiment, the lower ends of 




glass tubes each 100 centimeters long and 2 centimeters 
in diameter, arc closed with fine muslin by drawing a 
rubber ring over them, D (Fig. 24). Fill the tubes, 
tapping them gently, with air-dry fine soil (less than 2 
millimeters in diameter), and insert them 1 to 2 centi- 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 159 

metres deep in a glass dish, B (Fig. 24), containing 
water. It is recommended to nse for the experiment 
the stand A (Fig. 24), which is arranged for ten tubes, 
C, which, in order to keep them suspended in the water, 
are above secured by rubber rings, E. 

With the aid of a meter rule it is now ascertained 
how much time the fluid consumes in ascending 20, 30, 
40, 50, 60, 70 centimeters, and in what time the maxi- 
mum ascent is reached. The water absorbed by the soil 
from the glass dish B must constantly be replaced. 

The experiment may also be made by measuring the 
heights to which the fluid has risen in 24, 48, 72, 96, 
120 hours. 

When the experiment is finished, it is also of interest 
to cut up the tubes into pieces 1 decimeter long, and to 
separately determine the content of water in them. It 
may here be remarked that the tubes of 100 centimeters 
length may also be used for the purpose of determining 
how deeply and rapidly a column of water of determined 
height (for instance, 10 centimeters) penetrates from above 
into the air-dry soil. 

D. Behavior of the soil toicards gases. 1. The absor- 
bent capacity of the soil for aqueous vapor, — To determine 
the saturation-degree of the soil in a space filled with 
aqueous vapors, bring 10 grammes of the air-dry soil 
into a shallow zinc box with a bottom-surface of 25 
square centimeters, spreading it out as uniformly as 
possible. After Aveighing the box with the soil, place 
another weighed box of the same size, but empty, to- 
gether with the first, upon a tripod under a glass bell 
dipping in water. In the glass bell hang a thermo- 
meter, and at each weighing read oif the temperature. 



1<)0 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. 

After 24 hours weigh the zinc box filled witli soil, as 
well as the empty one, and deduct the increase in weight 
of the latter from the increase in weight of the former. 
Repeat the weighings at intervals of 24 hours, until, 
with the same conditions of temperature, an approxi- 
mately constant weight is obtained. The moisture 
retained is calculated for 100 grammes of the soil dried 
at 212° F., and designated as the absorbent capacity for 
aqueous vapor. 

2. The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the 
atmospheric air. — The absorbent power of the soil for 
oxygen is traceable to chemical and physical causes. Its 
fixation chemically is effected by the oxidation of ferrous 
oxide combinations, metallic sulphides, and humus sub- 
stances which may be present in the soil. The physical 
absorption is dependent on the condensation of the gas 
upon the surface of the particles of soil. The chemical 
fixation of the oxygen preponderates by far, and from it 
a judgment can frequently be formed regarding the con- 
dition of the humus substances, they being found in the 
soil in a more or less readily decomposable state corre- 
sponding to the greater or smaller absorption of oxygen. 
According to W. Wolf, 50 or 100 grammes of soil are 
compounded with so much distilled water that the soil 
to be examined contains 20 per cent, of it. The soil is 
enclosed, together with an accurately measured quantity 
of air, in bottles of 500 centimeters capacity, and the 
change in the volume of air in from 8 to 14 days ob- 
served, the quantity of carbonic acid formed in place 
of the oxygen, which has disappeared, being at the same 
time determined. 

If simply the absorption-coefficient of the soil for 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 161 

oxygen is to be determined, thoroughly moisten, accord- 
ing to F. Schulze, 25 grammes of soil in a small flask 
with quite concentrated potash lye, connect the flask 
with an azotometer in which a determined volume of air 
is shut off" by mercury and repeatedly shake the flask 
during the experiment. The decrease (after one to four 
days) in the volume of air contained in the entire 
apparatus gives the quantity of oxygen absorbed. 

G. Ammon, in his article " Untersuchungen iiber 
das Condensationsvermogen der Bodenkonstituenten flir 
Gas,"* sums up the most interesting results of his ex- 
periments as follows : — 

1. The condensation of the gases by the soil is de- 
pendent on physical and chemical processes. 

2. The absorption of gas in the soil brought about 
by chemical processes is of greater moment than that 
caused by surface attraction. The former is principally 
effected by the ferric oxide and next by the humus sub- 
stances. 

3. The gases in being condensed by the soil are either 
absorbed as such, or they suffer thereby chemical 
changes. 

4. The gases are generally condensed in a higher de- 
gree the more readily, they otherwise change their aggre- 
gate state and the more readily they are decomposed. 

5. The condensation of the gases in the soil is the 
greater, the finer, under otherwise equal conditions, the 
particles of soil are. 

6. The largest quantities of gases are condensed by 
the soil at a temperature between zero and 10° C, while 

* WoUny, Forscliungeu auf dem Gebiete der Agiikultur-Physik. 
Band II., 1879. 
11 



162 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

from that point on, the quantity of gases absorbed de- 
creases with the rise and fall of temperature. 

3. Tlie ventilating power of the soil. — The ventilating 
power of a soil, i. e., the greater or smaller resistance 
opposed by diiferent soils in a wet state to the passage 
of the air, has been justly considered, by R. Heinrich, 
as a very important property forjudging of it. A\'hether 
drainage can be carried out in a field or not is solely 
dependent, it is claimed, on this property. 

The experiment is made, according to Heinrich, as 
follows : After the soil has been saturated by means of 
the sheet cylinder described on p. 155, under determina- 
tion of the water capacity in the open field, and a con- 
stant water capacity has been obtained, a square box o 
strong zinc sheet C (Fig. 25), 100 square centimeters in 
cross-section and 20 centimeters higli, is 10 centimeters 
deep sunk into the soil. On the outside of the box, 10 
centimeters from the bottom, a strip of zinc sheet, 5 cen- 
timeters wide, is soldered on at a right angle, so that by 
this means the box can be forced by the foot into the 
soil to the above-mentioned depth, and, therefore, in- 
closes a cube of earth of 1000 cubic centimeters. The 
portion of the box above the soil serves as an air- 
chamber and is connected with the flask B, of ten liters 
capacity, by a tube soldered on, on the side. By the ad- 
mission of water by means of a siphon from the flask A, 
standing at a higher level, into the flask B, the air in the 
latter is compressed and forced through the soil. The 
flask B is provided with a manometer, D, by which the 
air-pressure can be measured. By raising or lowering 
the water reservoir A, the air-pressure can be increased 
or decreased at will. 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 



163 



In making the experiment, water is allowed to flow 
in until the manometer shows the desired pressure. 
Then shnt off the water by closing the clip and wait one 
or two minutes. If the pressure decreases during Ihis 

• 

Fi2. 25. 




tim admit more water until the first pressure has been 
again attained. By continuing the experiment in this 
manner, the time required to force 10 liters of air, at a 
determined height of the manometer, through 1 liter of 
soil is ascertained, 

E. Behavior of the soil towards heat. 1. Determina- 
tion of the heat-absorbent poioer of the soil. — A cylindrical 
glass vat 4 centimeters high and 16 centimeters in 
diameter, covered outside with thick asbestos pasteboard, 
is entirely filled with air-dry fine soil, then placed in a 
wooden box the lid of which is provided with an aper- 
ture corresponding to the cross-section of the glass vat 



164 THE i:XAMrNATION OF SOILS. 

and exposed for (J hours to the direct rays of the sun. 
By a maximum thermometer, imbedded 1 centimeter 
deep in the soil, tlie temperature to which the soil during 
this time has been heated is then ascertained. The ex- 
periment is repeated under as equal conditions as pos- 
sible by imbedding the thermometer 2, 3 and 4 centime- 
ters deep and determining the maximum temperature to 
which the soil has been heated. 

The heating capacity of a soil is dependent on various 
conditions. The specific heat of the soils, i. e., their dif- 
ferent behavior regarding the absorption of varying 
quantities of heat units to increase their temperature 1° 
C, will have to be taken into consideration, further their 
color and their more or less inclined position. 

With soils saturated with moisture as found in the 
field, their greater or smaller content of water is, how- 
ever, of the greatest importance as regards the absorp- 
tion of heat. While 1 kilogramme of water requires 100 
units of heat to be raised 1° C, an equal Aveight of clay 
requires only 17.8, and an equal weight of sand only 12.8 
units of heat for the same increase in temperature. To 
this, it must further be added, that a moist soil is con- 
siderably cooled off by the evaporation taking })lace on 
its surface. Hence, a field suffering from moisture may 
always be designated as cold. 

Investigations regarding the maximum and minimum 
temperatures of the soil in a day, week or month are of 
great value when the results are compared with the tem- 
peratures of the air at the time being and referred to the 
plant-production of the soil. It is best to use for this 
])ur[)(jse maximum and minimum thermometers accord- 



PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 165 

ing to the Six-Kapeller system, which are imbedded 1, 
2, 5, 10 centimeters deep in the soil. 

2. The heat-conducting 'power of the soil. — The heat- 
conducting power of the soil is determined by filling, 
with constant tapping against a soft support, a thin 
spherical glass flask of 1 liter capacity with air-dry fine 
soil and at the same time fixing the bulb of a mercurv 
thermometer in the centre of the flask. The latter is 
then brought into a drying chamber provided with a 
gas-pressure regulator and heated to 212° F. Now 
accurately observe the time required to heat the soil to 
its centre from its original temperature to 212° F. 

The experiment may also be made by heating the soil 
in the same vessel to 212° F. and, determining, by the 
thermometer sticking in the soil, the time required for 
the soil to cool off to its initial temperature. 

From his experiments Wolluy has deduced the follow- 
ing general results : — 

1 . During the warmer season of the year and with 
warm weather, a compact soil is on an average warmer 
than a loose soil. 

2. During the colder seasons of the year (spring and 
fall), and also in the warmer season, whenever there is a 
sudden and considerable fall in the temperature, a c!om- 
pact soil is, on an average, colder tlian a loose soil. 

3. During the warmer season of the year, and with 
warm weather, a compact soil is considerably warmer 
during the day, but commonly colder during the night 
than a loose soil. 

4. At ihe time of the daily maximum of the tempera- 
ture of the soil the difference mentioned under 1 is 
greatest, but at the time of the daily minimum, either 



1(36 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

very small or an equalization or even an inverse ratio 
takes place. 

5. In a compact soil the variations in temperature are 
considerably greater than in a loose soil. 

6. The causes of the above-mentioned phenomena 
are due to the better heat-conducting power of a com- 
pact soil as compared with a loose soil. 

F. Cohesion and adheaion of the soil. — To determine 
the degree of firmness with which the particles of soil 
in a dry state cohere together, knead, according to the 
method proposed by SchUbler, the soil together with 
water and shape the mixture in a mould to rods 5 centi- 
meters long and 1 centimeter wide. After completely 
drying the rods in the air, the pressure required to cut 
them through is determined by placing weights upon a 
suitable apparatus provided below with a dull edge. 

Another method to determine the coherence of the 
soil in a wet state was devised by R. Heinrich. The 
soil is uniformly saturated with water so that the con- 
tent of water amounts to exactly 50 per cent, of the 
highest water-capacity of the experiment in the labora- 
tory. The soil is then pressed between two sheet-iron 
plates, one side of which is in the centre provided with 
a hook. The layer of soil between the sheet-iron plates 
should be from 5 to 10 centimeters. The upper plate 
is then suspended from a thread, while to the low^er a 
small basket is secured, into which sand in small portions 
is introduced until the column of soil tears apart. The 
plate torn away, together with the basket and the ad- 
hering soil, is then weighed. Their weight corresponds 
to the force required to break up the coherence of a layer 
of earth one decimeter in cross-section. This method 



GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL- ANALYSIS. 167 

is, of course, only available for soils in which the ad- 
hesion to the iron plate is greater than the coherence of 
the soil. 

Regarding the adhesion of moist soils to iron and 
wood, the sample to be examined is, according to Hein- 
rich's directions, also moistened with 50 per cent, of 
water of its highest water capacity, and after bringing it 
into a larger vessel, the surface of the soil is leveled as 
much as possible. A plate of sheet-iron or beech wood 
one square decimeter in cross-section is then pressed 
firmly upon the soil, so that a complete contact of the 
soil with the metal or wood takes place. To the hook 
of the plate is fastened a cord which runs over a pulley 
and carries a small basket. The latter is loaded with 
sand until the plate tears loose from the soil. The 
force required to overcome the adhesion corresponds to 
the weight of the basket and of the portion of cord 
reaching to the summit of the pulley, less the weight of 
the plate torn off and the other end of the cord. 



X. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 

It is, of course, self-evident that in the examination 
of determined varieties of soil not all the methods dis- 
cussed in the preceding sections will need to be emploved. 
The course of soil-analysis cannot be regulated accord- 
ing to a pattern with fixed limits, but must, in each 
case, be adapted to the questions to be decided. How- 
ever, in order to obtain comparable results, it is necessary 



168 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. 

to agree on certain fixed rules. Proceeding from the 
point of view that the chief purpose of soil-analysis is 
to be of service to agriculture and forestry, the general 
rules to be applied to the examination of soils and the 
question which deserves special consideration shall here 
be briefly summed up : — 

1. The profile of the entire soil, as far as of importancic 
for the nourishment of plants, must be included in the 
examination. This, in most cases, will embrace the top- 
soil and the more shallow and deeper subsoils. 

2. Whenever possible, accurate analyses by graining 
with the round-hole sieve and elutriating with Schoene's 
apparatus should be executed with the three above- 
mentioned layers of soil, and always with the top-soil if 
not derived from moor-soil. From such analyses im- 
portant conclusions regarding the physical properties of 
the top-soil and subsoil can be drawn, and a thorough 
knowledge of the mechanical mixture of the soil is of 
great value forjudging it. For the mechanical analysis 
the "air-dry total soil is to be used. 

3. For judging the subsoil, it is further of import- 
ance to determine its content of carbonate of lime, as 
well as of clay, the latter by disintegration of the clayey 
particles, less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter, with sul- 
phuric acid in the closed tube (p. 83). 

4. If the layers of the subsoil are to be utilized for 
meliorating purposes, they must be examined as to the 
substances useful and injurious to the growth of plants 
contained in them. Of the useful substances, it will 
be primarily necessary to determine the content of car- 
bonate of lime and phosphoric acid, and of the injurious 



GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 169 

ones, the presence of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric 
acid, and iron disulphide. 

5. In all chemical and physical examinations of the 
top-soil, fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter, 
dried at 212° F., is to be used, and the results must be 
referred to it. 

6. In regard to the separation of the soil-constituents, 
the content of lime, clay, humus, and sand in the fine 
soil of the top-soil, dried at 212° F., is to be determined. 

7. Exclusive of moor-soils, the determination of 
nitrogen is only to be executed with top-soils. 

8. For the determination of the plant-nourishing 
substances the extraction with boiling concentrated sul- 
phuric acid is preferably to be used, and, as a rule, only 
the top-soil (fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter) 
need to be considered. In making the experiment, 
calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, phosphoric acid, and 
sulphuric acid must first of all be determined. How- 
ever, the substances not belonging to the actual plant- 
nourishing substances, such as silica, alumina, ferric 
oxide, oxide of manganese, and sodium must also be 
taken into consideration. 

9. For the determination of Knop's absorption- 
coefficient, air-dry fine earth less than 0.5 millimeter in 
diameter is to be used. The experiments can only be 
executed with top-soils, for the judging of which they 
are of great importance. 

10. Of the physical examinations the water capacity 
(if possible in the open field) and the capillary attraction 
are chiefly to be considered. 



INDEX. 



ABSORBENT power of the soil, 
testing the, 147-149 
Absorption-coefflcieut, definition 
of, 118, 119 
determination of the, 119 
-151 
Acid, carbonic, determination of, by 
direct weigh- 
ing, 61-67 
of the, by weigh- 
ing from the 
loss, 62-61 
volumetric measurement 
of the, 56-61 
fluoric, disintegration with, 

100, 101 
free sulphuric, ferrous sulphate 
and iron disulphide, deter- 
mination of the, 110-111 
hydrochloric, extraction of the 

soil with, 130-133 
nitric, determination of, 110- 

123 
phosphoric, absorption of, 147, 
118 
Finkener's method of de- 
termining, 127-129 
precipitation of the, with 
ammonium molybdate, 
126, 127 
sulphuric, determination of, 
109, 110 
disintegration with, 83-87 
Acids, determination of the, in the 
acpieous extract, 108- 
123 
free humic, proof of the 
presence of, in the soil, 
139, 140 
Adhesion and cohesion of the soil, 

166, 167 
Alkali soils, taking specimens of, 
29 



Alluvium, formation of, 20 
Alumina, separation of the ferric 

oxide, from the, 87-94 
Ammonia, determination of the, in 

the soil, 137-139 
Ammon, G., summary of his ex- 
periments, 161, 162 
Ammonium chloride, determina- 
tion of, 117, 118 
molybdate, precipitation of the 
phosphoric acid with, 126, 
127 
nitrate, determination of the 
carbonate of calcium and 
magnesium, bv boiling with, 
67-72 
phospho- molybdate, determi- 
nation of the phosphoric 
acid as, 127-129 
Analyses, scheme of a table for, 45, 

46 
Analj'sis, elementary, determina- 
tion of the carbon of the 
humus substances, by, 78- 
81 
silt, 34-55 
Aqueous extract, determination of 
the acids in 
the, 108-123 
of the bases in 
the, 103-108 
vapor, absorbent capacity of 
the soil for, 159, 160 
table for finding the ten- 
sion of, 116 



BASES, determination of the, in 
the aqueous extract, 103-108 
Behavior of the soil towards water, 

151-159 
Bennigsen's elutriating flask, 34 
Blast lamp, 71 



172 



IXDEX. 



Boilino; flask, Erlcnmeycr, 131 
Bremen, methods used in tlie Prus- 
sian moor experimental station 
at, UO-143 
Bromine, disintegration with, 143, 
144 



CIALCIUM and magnesium, car- 
' honate of, determination of, 
G7-72 
carbonate or magnesium car- 
bonate, determination of the 
content of, 50-72 
Capillary attraction of the soil, 158, 

159 
Carbon, absorption of by the plant, 

24 
Carbon of the humus substances, 

determination of the, 78-81 
Carbonate, calcium or magnesium, 
determination of the content 
of, 56-72 
of calcium and magnesium, 

determination of, (i7-72 
sodium, disintegration with, 
99, 100 
Carbonic acid, determination of, by 
direct weigh- 
ing, 64-67 
of the, by weigh- 
ing, from the 
loss, 62-64 
Finkener's table for cal- 
culating, 59-61 
volumetric measurement 
of the, 56-()l 
Chlorine, determination of, 108, 

109 
Chissiflcation of soils, 21-23 
Clay, calculation of the content of, 
in the total soil, 92-94 
determination of the content 

of, 82-94 
importance of, as a soil-con- 

stitueut, 22, 23 
soils, 21 
Cohesion and adhesion of the soil, 

166, 167 
Combustion furnace, 79 



DENUDATION of the soil, 19, 20 
Derivation and formation of 
the soil, 17-20 



Determination of the plant-nour- 
ishing substances, 101-139 
of the soil-constituents, 56-101 
of tlie substances in tlie soil 
injurious to the growth of 
plants, 139-144 
of various properties of the 
soil, 144-167 
Dietrich's table for the absorption 

of nitrogen, 122 
Drying stand, Finkener's, 128 
stove, 70, 73-75 



EARTH, fine, 33 
superlicial formation of the 
crust of the, 17 
Elementary composition of the 
soil, determination of the, 99- 
101 
Elements found in plants, 26 

to be considered in soil-analy- 
sis, 26 
Elutriating apparatus, 52-55 
Ililgard's, 52-55 
Noebel's, 34-3() 
Sehoene's, 36-52 
cylinder, Kuehn's, 34 
process, precautions to be ob- 
served in the, 54, 55 
products obtained bv the, 
50, 51 
space, cylindrical, determina- 
tion of the diameter of the| 
40 
velocities, products of granu- 
lation corresponding to, 44 
velocity, formulas lor calcu- 
lating the, 41-44 
Elutriation and granulation, cal- 
culating and entering the 
products of, 51, 52 
definition of velocity of, 36 
products of, obtained with 

Noebel's apparatus, :>() 
with distilled water, apparatus 
for, 47-52 
Elutriator, Sehoene's, 37, 38 
Erlenmeyer boiling flask, 131 
Evaporating power of the soil, 156, 
157 



Ii^ERRIC oxide, separation of the, 
frona the alumina, 87-94 



INDEX. 



173 



Ferrous oxide, deterniiuation of 
the iron as, 87-90 
sulphate, free sulphuric acid 
and iron disulphide, deter- 
mination of the, 140-144 
Fesca, definition of fine soil by, 33 
Filters, weighed, preparation of, 

106 
Filtrating power of the soil, 157, 

158 
Fine earth, 33 

soil, 33 
Finkener's apparatus, 64-67 
drying stand, 128 
method of determining phos- 
phoric acid, 127-129 
tables for calculating the car- 
bonic acid, 59-61 
Fluids, specifically heavy, 96 
Fluoric acid, disintegration with, 

100, 101 
Forchhammer's theory of the form- 
ation of kaolin, 19 
Formation and derivation of the 

soil, 17-20 
Formulas for calculating the elu- 
triating velocity, 41-44 
Funnel, hot water, 68 
Furnace, combustion, 79 
tubular, 84 



GASES, behavior of the soil to- 
wards, 159-163 
'Gein, 72 

Geissler potash apparatus, 65 
General rules for soil-analysis, 167- 

169 
Goldschmidt's specifically heavy 

fluid, 95 
Granulating witli the sieve, 31-34 
Granulation and elutriation, cal- 
culating and entering the pro- 
ducts of, 51, 52 



Heavy soils, definition of, 23 
Heinrich's method of determining 
the adhesion of 
soils, 167 
of determining the 
coherence of the 
soil, 166, 167 
of determining the 
water capacity of 
the soil in the 
open field, 155, 
156 
of testing the ven- 
tilating power of 
the soil, 162, 163 
Hilgard's elutriating appaiatus, 

52-55 
Hot-water funnel, 68 
Humic acids, free, proof of the 
presence of, in the soil, 139, 140 
Humus, acid, 72 
definition of, 72 
determination of the, by igni- 
tion, 81, 82 
neutral, 72 
soils, 21 

substances, determination of, 
72-82 
of the carbon 
of the, 78- 
81 
Hydrochloric acid, extraction of 
the soil with, 130-133 



INORGANIC combinations, ele- 
ments for the formation of, 
26 
substances in plants, 26 
Iron, determination of the, as fer- 
rous oxide, 87-90 
disulphide, ferrous sulphate, 
and free sulphuric acid, de- 
termination of the, 140-144 



HAZARD'S method of determi- 
ning the content of quartz, 
96-99 
Heat-absorbent power of the soil, 

163-165 
Heat, behavior of the soil towards, 

163-166 
Heat-conducting power of the soil, 
105, 166 



KAOLINIZATION, process of, 
19 
Kjeldahl's method of determining 

nitrogen, 133-135 
Knop, definition of fine earth and 

fine soil by, 33 
Knop's eluti'iating cylinder, 34 
method for the determination 
of humus, 73-78 



174 



INDEX. 



Knop's metliod of dpterniiiiiiijrthc 
ahsorptioii-coetticient, 14!)-151 

Knnp-Waj>iier azotometer, deter- 
iiniiatioii of the nitrogen, by the, 
118-123 

Kuehn's elutriating cylinder, :M 



LABORATORY, experiments to 
determine the power of the 
soil to retain moisture, in the, 
151-151 
Laufer's method of obtaining small 

grains, 45 
Liburnau, Lorenz von, system of 

soil classification of, 21 
Light soils, definition of, 23 
Lime soils, 21 
Loam soils, 21 
Loams, light and heavj' , 23 



MAGNESIUM carbonate or cal- 
cium carbonate, determina- 
tion of the content of, 56- 
72 
pyrophosphate, weighing the 
j)hOBphoric acid as, 126, 127 
Marl soils, 21 

Mayer's method of determining 
the power of the soil to retain 
moisture, 154 
Mechanical soil-analysis, 31-55 
Minerals contained in rocks, trans- 
formation of, 18, 19 
table of specific gravities of, 96 
Mohr's apparatus, 63-64 
Monocalcium phosphate, prepara- 
tion of, 147, 148 
Muencke, K., drying chamber, de- 
vised by, 70, 73-75 



NITRIC acid, determination of, 
110-123 
Nitrogen, determination of the, 
by combustion with 
soda-lime, 135-137 
of the, by the Knop- 
Waguer azotome- 
ter, 118-123 
of the total, in the 
soil, 133-137 
Dietrich's table for the absorp- 
tion of, 122 



Nitrogen, Kjeldahl's method of de- 
termining, 133-135 

Noebel's elutriating ajjparatus, 34- 
36 

Normal solutions, preparation of, 
147 

Nourishing substances, behavior 
of the soil towards, 146-151 



OBJECT of soil-analysis, 24- 
27 
Organic combinations, elements for 
the formation of, 26 
in plants, 25, 26 
Orth's auxiliary cylinder, 45 
Oxide, ferric, separation of the, 

from the alumina, 87-94 
Oxygen, absorbent power of the 
soil for, 160, 161 



PEAT, definition of, 72 
special method in the exami- 
nation of, 123 
Phosphate monocalcium, prejiara- 

tion of, 147, 148 
Phosphoric acid, absorption of, 
147, 148 
determination of 
the, as ammo- 
nium phospho- 
molybdate, 127- 
129 
Finkener's method 
of determining, 
127-129 
precipitation of 
tlie, with ammo- 
nium molybdate, 
126, 127 
Plant, absorption of carbon by the, 
24 
elementary substances of the, 
25, 26 
Plant-nourishing substances, de- 
termination of the, 101-139 
Plants, content of water in, 25 
determination ol' some import- 
ant substances for the 
nourishment of, 133-139 
of the substances in the 
soil injurious to the 
growth of, 139-144 
elements found in, 26 



INDEX. 



175 



Plants, inorganic substances in, 26 
organic combinations in, 25, 26 
Porosity of the soil, 145 ,14G 
Potash apparatus, Geissler, 65 
Potassium permanganate solution, 
determination of 
the iron by titra- 
tion with, 87-90 
solution, standard- 
izing of the, 90- 
92 
Preparatory labors for soil-analy- 
sis, 28-31 
Prussian moor experimental sta- 
tion at Bremen, methods used 
in the, 140-143 



Q 



UARTZ, determination of the 
content of, 96-99 



ROCKS, disintegration of, 17, 18 
Rolirbach's specifically heavy 
fluid, 96 
Rules, general for soil-analysis, 
167-169 



SALT, common, determination of 
content of, in the soil, 140 
Salts suitable for testing the ab- 
sorbent power of the soil, 147 
Salty soils, taking specimens of, 29 
Sand, determination of the con- 
tent of, 94-96 
petrographic determination of 
the coarser admixed parts 
of, 94-96 
soils, 21 
Scheibler's apparatus for the volu- 
metric measurement of carbonic 
acid, 57 
Schloesing's method for the deter- 
mination of the ammonia in the 
soil, 138, 139 
Schloesing - Schulze's modified 
method for the determination 
of nitric acid, 111-116 
Schoene and Wolff, E., definition 

of fine earth bj', 33 
Schoene's elutriating apparatus, 

36-52 
Sieve, granulating with the, 31-34 
Silt-analysis, 34-55 



Soda-lime, determination of the 
nitrogen by combustion with, 
135-137 
Sodium carbonate, disintegration 

with, 99, 100 
Soil, absorbent capacity of the, for 
aqueous vapor, 159, 160 
power of the, for oxygen, 
160, 161 
Soil-analysis, execution of a com- 
plete, 27 
general rules for, 167-169 
mechanical, 31-55 
object of, 24-27 
preparatory labors for, 28-31 
Soil, behavior of, towards gases, 
159-163 
of the, towards heat, 163- 

166 
of the, towards nourishing 

substances, 146-151 
of the, towards water, 151- 
159 
calculation of the content of 

clay in the total, 92-94 
capillary attraction of the, 158, 

159 
characterization of the me- 
chanical composition of a, 32 
coherence and adherence of 
the, 166, 167 
Soil-constituents, determination of 

the, 56-101 
Soil, denudation of the, 19, 20 
derivation and formation of, 

17-20 
determination of the ammonia 
in the, 137-139 
of the content of common 

salt in the, 140 
of the el ementarj' compo- 
sition of the, 99-101 
of the full capacity of the, 

for water, 152 
of the specific gravity of 

the, 144, 145 
of the substances in the, 
injurious to the growth 
of plants, 139-144 
of the sulphur in the, 141- 

145 
of the total nitrogen in 

the, 133-137 
of the volume weight of 
the, 145, 146 



]7r, 



INDEX. 



Soil, determination of the water 

capacitj' of the, in tlie 

open field, lo-l-150 

of various properties of 

the, 144-107 

drj'ing and storing samples of, 

31 
evaporating power of the, 156, 

157 
extraction of the, with car- 
'bouatert water, ri.'5-ll-iO 
of the, with cold, distilled 

water, 102-123 
of the, witli hydrochloric 
acid, 130-133 
Soil-extractions, determination of 
plant-nourishing substances in, 
102-133 
Soil, filtrating power of the, 157, 
158 
fine, 33 
forces active in the formation 

of the, 17 
further treatment of the, ex- 
tracted with carbonated 
water, 12!), 130 
granulation of the, by the 

sieve, 31-34 
greatest or full capacity of the, 

for water, 152 
heat-absorbent power of the, 

lfi3-165 
heat-conducting j)ower of the, 

165, 166 
points to be noted regarding 

the, 30 
porosity of the, r45, 146 
proof of the presence of free 
humic acids in the, 139, 140 
testing the absorbent power of 

the, 147-149 
the apparent specific gravity 

of the, 145 
transportation of, by water, 

19, 20 
value of the, for cultivation, 

ventilating power of the, 102, 

1()3 
weight of the, 144-166 
Soils, classification of, 21-23 
clay, 21 

definition of light and heavy, 23 
dei)osited or transported, 21 
derived, 21 



Soils, humus, 21 
lime, 21 
loam, 21 
marl, 21 

primitive or original, 21 
sand, 21 
stony, 21 
sub, 23 

taking specimens of, 28-30 
top, 23 
true, 23 
Specific gravity of the soil, deter- 
mination of the, 
144, 145 
the apparent, of the 
soil, 145 
Stony soils, 21 

Sub-soil, importance of the exami- 
nation of the, 168, 169 
Sub-soils, 23 

Sulpliate, ferrous, free sulphuric 
acid and iron disulphide, deter- 
mination of the, 140-144 
Sulphur, determination of the, in 

the soil, 141-145 
Sulphuric acid, determination of, 
109, 110 
disintegration with, 

83-87 
free, ferrous sulphate 
and iron disulphide, 
determination of 
the, 140-144 



11ABLE, Dietrich's, for the ab- 
sorption of nitrogen, 122 
for analyses, scheme of a, 45, 

46 
Finkener's, for calculating 
carbonic acid, 59-61 
Thaer, Albrccht, system of soil 

classification proposed by, 21 
Thoulet's specifically heavy fiuid, 

95 
Tiemann's method for the deter- 
mination of nitric acid, 111-116 
Top soils, 23 
True soils, 23 
Tubular furnace, 84 



VELOCITIES, elutriating, pro- 
ducts of granulation corres- 



])Oiidiiig to, 44 



INDEX. 



177 



Velocity, elutriating, formulas for 
calculating the, 41-44 

Ventilating power of the soil, 162, 
163 

Volume weight of the soil, deter- 
mination of, 145, 146 



WATER-BATH, covered, 106 
Water, behavior of the soil 
towards, 151-159 
Water capacity of the soil, deter- 
mination of the, in the open 
field, 154-156 
carbonated, extraction of the 

soil with, 123-130 
cold distilled, extraction of the 

soil with, 102-123 
content of, in plants, 25 



Water, determination of the full 

capacity of the soil for, 152 

distilled, apparatus for elutri- 

ation with, 47-53 
greatest or full capacity of the 

soil for, 152 
transportation of soil, by, 19, 
20 
Weathering, 17 
Weight of the soil, 144-146 
Wolf's, W., method of determining 

the nitric acid, 116-118 
Wolff, E., and Schoene, definition 

of fine earth by, 33 
Wolff's, E., method for determin- 
ing the evaporating power of the 
soil, 156, 157 
Wollny's deductions from his ex- 
periments on the heat-conduct- 
ing power of the soil, 165, 166 



12 



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BURGH.— Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem 
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purpose*. 
P>y N. P. Burgh, Engineer. i2mo. .... $1.5° 

BYLES. — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political 

Economy Examined. 

By a B.VRRisTER (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by ihc 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . $125 

BOWMAN. — The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes: 
Being the suljstance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivered at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Tcchnic .1 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. II. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
Svo ■ . . . ^6.50 

^YRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer : 
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackering, Appai-atus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 7 

Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ........ 1^5'^^ 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers: 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Ikying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Emhankmeals ; Earlh« 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo,, full lx>und, pocket-hook 
form ^1-75 

BYRNE. — The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant: 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Foutsdiiig; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes aud Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Applicatioij of the Art of Electro- Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, aad from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Pluraier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairu and others. By Oliver Byrne- A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, coa- 
taining Jhe Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By JOHN PERCY, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Irou Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject, 8vo 155-00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer o( Engine Work, NaTal 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo,, nearly 
600 passes ......... $4-5* 

CAJBJNET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITUREi 

CoGiprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty -eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Oblong, 8vo. ......... $3.50 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Masiual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. 121110. ....... $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metailjirgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation^ Manufacture of Steam- 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Ffancis Campin, C. E, To which are added. Observations 
00 the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R, 
Armstrong, C. E,, and John Bour.ne. Rules for Calculating the 
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel- 
cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ- 
ing F'orging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking an^ 
Expanat m ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. 
lHuslTftted with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $S-00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. \Vm. Ei.dkr. With n ixirlrait. 8vo., cloth , . f5 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricuhural, Manufacturing and Commer. 

cial. 8vo. . . $1.50 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . $2.25 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. f; 10.00 

Past, Present and Future. 8vo ^3.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, Svo. . . $10.00 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). Svo. . . , $2.00 

The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Mural Science (1872). 8vo. . . $3-50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : 

Embracing n Comprehensive History of the System. With an eX' 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. KiNNEAR C'.ARK. Illustrated by over "200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. Svo. . $12.50 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine: 

InclucHng a Descrijjtion of it^ Structure, Rules for EstiTiating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. l2mo. . $1.00 

ZOLLENS. — The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," "The ?Iistory 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00 ; Cloth . $1.25 

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery : 

Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Aknold J. 
CooLEY. i2mo $I.5Cr 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans- 
mission of Power. 

^ With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten- 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving jiower of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management o 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together witn 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Murin, Briggs, and others. E^ 
John H. Cooper, M. E. Svo . ;S!3.5Q 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and M^Uer. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates. Svo. .... $5.0^ 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CREW. — A Practical Treatise on Petroleum : 

Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History, 
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Togetiier 
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc. 
By Benjamin J. Crew. With an Appendix on the Product and 
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in 
Pennsylvania and New York. By Charles A. Ashburnek, M. S., 
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia. Illustrated 
by 70 engravings. 8vo. 508 pages .... ^5.00 

CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner: 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Scliedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 

CRISTIANI.— A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of "Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . $12.50 
CRISTIANI.— Perfumery and Kindred Arts: 
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of 
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete 
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in 
the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful 
Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparatioms of 
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, W^ers, 
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics, 
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes, 
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc. ; and full details for 
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc, 
by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and 
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors, 
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor- 
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts fol 
various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. Cristiani, Con- 
sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. . . $10.00 
DAVIDSON.— A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing: 
CoDtaioing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign-' 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. 

$3.00 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 

Mining : 

By D. C. Da VIES, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 

76 Engravings. i2mo $5.00 



«o HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO 'S CATALOGUE. 

i>AVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 

ijy D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mir.ev 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, i2mo., 450 pages $S-06 
DAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. D.WIES, F. G. S.,' 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates. laao ^2.03 

JOAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
' ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale .• 
liy Charles T. IJavls. Illustrated \>y 65 engravings. Svo. 51.50 

TjAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper: 

Being a Description of the varit)us Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Mnteriah, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, Svo. ^6.00 

AVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: 
Being a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, 
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather; including 
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their 
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con- 
nected with an Intelligent an-d Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with 
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are 
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro- 
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By Chaklks 
Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and laSamphscf 
Dyed Leathers. One vol., Svo., S24 pages . . . ;$io.oo 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent Americxtn Processes, by 

William T. Bran.nt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 

of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. l2mo. . . . ^(2.50 

r)e GRAFF.- The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide: 
being a Plain Prnctical System of Hand- Railing, embracing all its 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles 
of Practical Geometry. By SiMON De Graff, Architect. 4.to. 



riENRV CARE'vf bAiKU be CO .>3 CATALOG' J ii., ii 

l)K KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 

Analysis and Assaying : 
As applied to the Mamifactuie of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Dfi 
KoNiNCK, Dr. Sc, and E. DiKTZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on IroK Ores, by A. A. 
Fesouet, Chemist and Engineer. l2mo. . . . ^2.50 

[UNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: , 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of com- 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher 
By Andrew Dijncan. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . ^125 

OUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Orain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho- 
del, Fiuits, etc. ; with the Di-tillation and Rectification of Brandy. 
Whiskey, Rum, (jin, vSwiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copiowa 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Sj:iirituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duplais, 
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the 
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and 
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen 
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 PP- ^^o. ^10 00 

BUSSAOCE.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, 
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. 
By Professor H. Dussauce. i2mo. . . . . ^3 oo 

OYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. $12$ 

EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 

For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 1 2 mo. 414 pages . . . ^2 00 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 

Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards. 
Illustrated i2mo ;^.oo 

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
iwikers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
iilustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. .... $2,^ 



ra HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ftDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, an^ 

Screw Propellers, 

Their Design ami Construction. Showing the Present Pracxice of 

the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 

United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 410. $5.00 

EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, 
{Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by iig engravings. 420 pages. 
i2ino ;>2 50 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Gold: 

A Practical Treatise 011 the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear- 
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, 
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler. 

With 132 Illustrations. l2mo. $3-50 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of 
Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. 
l2mo $425 

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo $2 50 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . $3.00 

ERNL— Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including 
Ores, by means of the Blow] ipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of 
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry 
Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, 
enlarged and improved. l2mo. ..... 33 oc 

FAIRBAIRN.— The Prmciples of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission • 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and PuUevs, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR William Fairbairn, Bart 
C E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 
volume. i2mo ......... iS!2.5C 

fe'LEMING.— Narrow Gauge Railways in America. 
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo. . . . . $1 00 

?ORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Contaming 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
hy Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . - $5 °° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 



FRANKEL— HUTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 
Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every biancli of the sul)ject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 op. . S^.W 

GARDNER.— The Painter's Encyclopaedia: 

Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. i2mo. 427 pp. ..... ^2.00 

GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book: 

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De- 
signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work, 
and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing, 
Polishing, Staining, Ppprr Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as 
Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for 
Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. i2mo., 183 pp. . $l.OO 

GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook: 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New- 
System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. lamo. . , ^1.75 

GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refinip'3 and Melting the Metal ; its 
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. ,^1.75 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong ^2.00 

GRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By Georgb 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. $l-5Q 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood, F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. i2mo. ;5S2.oo 



/4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men : 

AdaiJted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates ^3.00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison 
of Saws of all kinds. IVitk Copiotts Appendices. Giving the det.iils 
of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of 
Saws; Tables of Gauges; Capacities of Saw-Mills; List of Saw- 
Patents, and other valuable information. V,y Robert Grim.shaw. 
Second and greatly enlarged edition, with Supplement, and 354 
Illustrations. Quarto ....... $500 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Eri' 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to ihe 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2mo., tucks ^i-75 

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the tJeneral Council of Mines ol 
Fr.mce, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines, 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an /appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . $2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and 
Mechanic: 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas» 
ure. Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 1S6 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK,— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. HasericK. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yami 
or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ i>7-S0 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . ,81.25 

BOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner pr 

Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized ana 

Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc ^nd Gutta Petcha Compositions, Water 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 1$ 

proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc. 
From the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated i2mo $2.^0 

fiOFMANN. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Paper in all its Branches : 
By Carl Hofmann, l-ate Superintendent of Paper-Mills in German)! 
and the United States; recent!)- Manager of the "Public Ledger" 
Paper-Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by no wood en- 
gravings, and five large Folding Plates. 4to., cloth ; about 400 
pages $3S-00 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. i2mo ^i-SO 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for tlie Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich ; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst ; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Li^ht Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto ...... ^2.50 

JERVIS.— Railroad Properly: 

A Treatise on the Construction and INIanagement of Railways', 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Raih\ay Managers, Offi- 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.oa 

KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla- 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House fnt 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. \Svo ?r.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . ^300 

KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System : 

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on " Labor and 
other Capital." With numerous additions from his mnnnsnipt. 
Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which it 
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, l2mo. 
Paper cover ......... ^I.oo 

Bound in cloth l-5<^ 

EMLO. — Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book : 

Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kkmlo, 
Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mo. . $1.2? 



|6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



KENTISH. — A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Log* 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim. 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thomas 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. . . . . $12^ 

KERL.— The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artillcial Products. By 15ru.no Kekl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German liy 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Member of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo ^3.00 

RICK. —Flour Manufacture . 

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick, 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the 
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement l>y H. H. 
P. PowLES, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. Svo. . $10.00 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas 
K I NGZETT, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. Svo. i^2.50 

KIRK.~The Founding of Metals: 

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the 
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances 
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. B) 
Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated, 
Third edition. Svo. I2.50 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel: 
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En 
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro. 
^^esses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt' 
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 
I2mo $3.oC 

LANGBEIN.— A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition 
of Metals : 
Translated from the German, with Additions, by Wm. T. Brannt. 
125 illusirations. Svo IS4.OO 

LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners, lllustratctl. l2mo. • . • 75 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

LARKIN. — The Fracticai Brass and Iron Founder's Guide; 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By 
James Larkin, late Conductor of tlie Brass Foundry Department ic 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, 
revised, with extensive additions. i2mo. , . . 152.25, 

IJSROUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing E.xlracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited m the Paris Uni- 
versal Exposition, 1S67. 8vo. ..... $5.00 

LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams: 

Comprising also the Bu'lding of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. $2,50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thoasand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. l2mo $1.50 

LE VAN. — The Steam Engfine and the Indicator : 

Their Origin and Progressive Development; including the Most 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi- 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo. ...... Jt+oo 

tlEBER.— Assayer's Guide : 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. i2mo. . . . $1.25 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six 
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
of " Pattern Making." 417 pp. i2mo. . . . I3.00 



i8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN. — Amongst Machines: 

Embracing Descriptions of the various Mecharical Appliances used 
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. »2mo. 

iUKIN.— The Boy Engineers: 
What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. l8mo. 

^1-75 

LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic t 

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds 
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam- Engines and Mechanical 
Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John 
LuKiN, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc. Illustrated. 
i2mo #1 75 

MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine; 

And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 

Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal '^'aval College, 

and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . $1.50 

IffAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 

With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . $!■$<> 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 

By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal NavqJ 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. . , $5.00 

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rewritten and much enlarged. i2mo., 592 pages . . $300 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 

Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo. 50 

mCHELL,.— Mine Drainage: 
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Un<l«r> 
jrround Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a larg« 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and thd 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of iheir Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By Stephen 
MiCHELL. Illustrated ijy 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00 

fcOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 
By GuiLKORD L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civi? 
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of Ure Ceylon Railway. Full- 
bound in Pocket-book form ...»•• jl.ott 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & C0.'5 CATALOGUE. 19 

MOORE.— The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
chanic : 

Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipt*, 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Mo(TRE. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. lanio. . ^2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the M.;asurement of Earthworks: 
By means of the Pnsmoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numeroug 
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 
By Elwuoij Morris, C. E. 8vo $1.50 

MORTON. — The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer- 
ence, Area, and Squaring the Circle: 
Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa- 
tion. By James Morton. Second Edition, enlarged, with the 
Metric System. i2mo. ....... ^I.OO 

NAPIER.— Manual of Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated bv engravings. 8vo. 

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing, 

By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus- 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages ....... $3-5o 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, for 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor- 
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Tohn Neville, C. E. M. R. 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick 
I2mo $5.50 

NEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
1862, and the best English aid Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, coiitaining many hundred examples. By 
Robert Nevvbery. 4to. ^12.50 

iflCHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor* 
Foremen and Workinji Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsnaiths 



M HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for th« 
Use of Science Sclujols and Classes. By SAMUEL NiCHOLLS. Illus- 
trated hy sixteen plates, l2mo. ..... j?2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 

Containing full instructions in the diHlrcnt Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By Jamks B. Nicholson. Illustrated. l2mo., cloth $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 

A Iland-Book for Fstiinating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Iviuipmcnt. By William J. NiCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, fidl bound, pocket-book form . $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determin.ation of the Intrinsic ot 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, F2nlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henrv M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo. ......... S55.or 

NORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives ; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
l2ino. .......... $i-50 

NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms; 
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
trology. By John W. Ny.strom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.oa 

NYSTROM.— On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. l2mo. . i?l.5Q 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo., 
491 pages I3.50 

fJRTON. — Underground Treasures: 

How and Where to 1' ind Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
of all the Useful Minerals within the United .States. By James 
Orton, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural .Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York; author of the 
"Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. 
Illustrated if 1. 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: 

Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference 
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osborn, LL. D., 
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, 
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and 
wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... ;fS25.oo 

OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min^ 

• ing: 

Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of 
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- 
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. 
Osborn, LL. D., Author of the '* Metallurgy of Iron and Steel," 
Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $^-$0 

OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : 

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Ijon," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. FesqI/jCT, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . ^1.50 

OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise oru Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow* 
ware. Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chem- 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. l2mo. . ^2. DC 

PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION-.' 
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the AnS 
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling, 
Sign-Writing, Gilding on Gla^s, and Coach Painting and Varnishint;; 
Tests for the Deteciion of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc.; and a 
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with 
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, will) 
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring — Theoretical and 
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional 
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and 
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreui's 
Principles of Plarmony atid Contrast of Colors. i2mo. Cloth $1.50 

PALLETT. — The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2nio. . . . $2.00- 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

By John Pkrcy, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the 
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of 
" Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relati.oa 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific 
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. 
Bv E. E. Perkins. i2nio., cloth 81.25 

PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tallies showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boder Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauga 
in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh II2 lbs. ])er bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 
Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe. 82.5a 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The Principles of Glass 

Making. 

By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 

Sheet Glass; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by II. 

G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . 8i-5a 

PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
for Marine Engineers : 
By Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Full -bmind pocket-book form ...... Si-5o 

REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 
By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., a«id edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . 87-50 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chenust and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illu'^trated . 85-00 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the (higin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formula; and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; tho 
Testing. Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
RjFKAULT, Vergnaud, and ToussAiNT. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



f. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. FesqUCT; 
Chemist and Engmeer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
vol., 8vo., 659 pages .....•• *7'5^ 

tOPER.— A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing 
Steam -Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- 
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- 
phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 
iSmo., tucks, gilt edge ^2.00 

gOPER. — Engineer's Handy-Book: 
Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its 
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae 
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines ; also. 
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
qualify themselves for the United Stales Navy, the Revenue Service, 
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. l6mo., 690 pagbs, tucks, 
gilt edge .......... ipS-S^ 

ROPER.— Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 

Including the Mrxlelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Lanr' :nid Marine Engines and Boilers. With il'ustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Si.xth edition. i2mo.,tvcks, gilt edge. 

$3-50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 

With illustrations. By STEPHEN RoPER, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edfje ....... $3-S^ 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary inteliigence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Ens^ineer. Third edition . . . i^3-°^ 

ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 

By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $2.00 

ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lnthe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps snd 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By Joshua Rose. Illus- 
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., l2mo., 439 pages $2.^0 

«OSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: 
Comprising liistructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instruments, Elementriry Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



«4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

'"g> together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Hollers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo, 313 pages .... $4.00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th^ 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 

Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LlKUT.- 
CoLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 

i2mo ,^2.ao 

SHAW.— Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... §10. 00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By W. F. Shunk, C. E. i2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 
SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 

By J. W. Slater. lanio ^3-75 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. ...... ^1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture: 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardemng, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By .Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo. ........ ^3-5o 

SLOANE. — Home Experiments in Science. 

By T. 0'CoNt)R Sloane, E. M., A.M., Ph.D. Illustrated by 91 
engravings. i2mo. ....... i$i.50 

SMEATON.— Builder's Pockei-Companion : 

Containing the lOlcineiils of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 
with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the suliject. 
By A. C. Smkaton, Civil Engineer, etc. l2mo. . . ;?i.30 

3MITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. 
By E. Peshink Smiiii. A New E<iiti'>n, lo which is added a full 
Index. I :mo ........ $l 25 



HENRY CAREY Ly\TRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2J 

SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure- Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and , 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... ^2.0Q 

SMITH. — The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing .Silk, Cotton, 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, anti the 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
By D/VVID Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $2.00 

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S, 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With iiumer- 
ous illustrations. i2ino. ...... $^'7^ 

SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal, 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. . . . . $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. l6mo. 

$2.00 
STEWART.— The American System : 

Speeches on the Tariff Qiiesti<Mi, and on Internal Improvements, 
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United 
States. By Andrew Stewart, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. 
With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . ^3.00 

STOKES. — The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Companion-. 
Comprising tlie Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain- 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and Virnishnig; to make French Polish, Glues. 
Cements, and Compos' .^^ ns; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with 
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etc., etc. i2nio ....... $1.25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
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SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. 

By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of "Ten Chaptei-s on 
Social Reforms." 8vo ^i-5vi 

SULZ. — A Treatise on Beverages : 

Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory 
Work, with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated 
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Chas Herman Sqlz, Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler 
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e6 HENRY CAREY BAIRu & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

SYME. — Outlines of an Indastrial Science. 

By David Symk. 121110. . . ... ;j2.o« 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 

By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal: 

Incliuliiig Mineral liitumiiious Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
Disiribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
American Continent. With Incitlenial Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. 1Iai.de- 
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
cloth $10.00 

TEMPLETON. — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 
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With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 
Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- 
gineer. i2mo. . . . . . . . . $1.25 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
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at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by William T. Bran.nt. 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. ScHWAUZ 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 81 s 
pages $10.00 

THOMAS. — The Modern Practice of Photography: 

By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 75 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. l2mo. . . . . $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 2ij.mo. . . $1.25 
URNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn, 
i'.ig; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working tluip 
umo. $1-5 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

Hand or Foot- Lathe : 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to. $3.00 

ITRBIN— BRULL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and 
Steel. 
By Ejd. Urbin, Engineer of Art.- and M.nuufactures. A Prize Essay, 



HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2? 

read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of 
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is 
added A Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and 
Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fes- 
QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. .... ^i.oo 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 
Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to. .... i^S-'^ 

f ILLE. — On Artificial Manures : 
Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravins^s. 8vo., 450 pages ^6,00 

a^ILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
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y^OGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Companion 
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Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 
form, gilt edges . . . . . . • • i$2.oo 

Cloth . . I-50 

W AHL. — Galvanoplastic Manipulations : 

A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal- 
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Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, 
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mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed 
in the Art, etc. Based largely on the " Manipulations Hydioplas- 
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( Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 en- 
gravings. 8vo., 656 pages 

WALTON —Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated : 
By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 larg« 
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»8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 
Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing; 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva. 
tion. Feeding Qualities of llie Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewh 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 

¥oT Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By Reuisen II. Warn, Practical 
Tin- Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . ^3.00 

VARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an A]3pendix. Part I. A Prac- 
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Apjx-ndix. 
Containing Notes to the Rules and Exainples of Part I. ; Explana- 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising 
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales 
and Diagrams, and a seiies of Lithographic Drawings from Models; 
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
Excavations and Embankments. By John Warner, A. M., Mining 
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised 
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... i!?4.00 

WATSON. — A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. 5" -50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers : 

Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, L•^t"tle 
Tools, Cutters for Borir.g Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togetnti 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam. 
Engine, Boiltrs, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . Jjte.50 

?VrATSON.— The Theory' and JPractice of the Art of Weaving 
by Hand and Power : 
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the 
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- 
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawmj^s of the best Power Looms. 
8^0. . . . • ^7.50 

JVATT.— The Art of Soap Making: 
A Practical IIand-l)ook of the Manufactine of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander 
Watt. 111. i2mo. $3-oo 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 

And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained, 
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur- 
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by 
Confectioaers and others. i2mo. ..... $1.50 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints to Young Architects: 
Compnsmg Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined 
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about 
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are 
aboiU to practise. Together with a Model Specification involving a 
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By George 
WiGHTWiCK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably 
enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction 
and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous 
Xliustrations. One vol. i2mo. ...... ;g2.00 

JVILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 
With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro* 
'essor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes. 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa 
8vo. . . • ^I-SCJ 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam: 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. 

WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers : 

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By RoBERt 

Wilson. Illustrated i2nio ^2.oc 

A^ILSON.— First Principles of Political Economy : 

With Reference to Stuesniaiiship and the Progress of Civilization. 

By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and 
' revised edition. i2mo. ....... $i.So 



30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATAI,OGUE. 



WOHLER. — A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis: 

By F. WoHLER, Professor of Cliemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason. Professor of Chemistiy in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
l2mo ^3-oo 

WORSSAM. — On Mechanical Saws: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W. 
WORSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo, ^2.50 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

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A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing 
or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. ANDERSON. 52 Illustrations. 
l2mo $1.50 

BEAUMONT.— Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture: 
Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the 
manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By Robert Beaumont, M. S. A. 
With over 200 illustration's, including Sketches of Machinery, 
Designs, Cloths, etc. 391 pp. i2mo $2.50 

BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys : 

A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal- 
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders, 
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc., 
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Ed'ted 
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with 
additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated. l2mo. $3-00 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; 
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 
Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipida- 
tions for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and 
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By WiLLiAM T. 
Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. ^2.50 



HBNRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE, 31 



DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, 
Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc. : 

Including Hand- Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and 
Stifif-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam-Pressed, Re- 
pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles, 
Straight and Curved Sewer and Water-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks, 
Glass Pots, Terra-Cotia, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles, 
etc. By Charles Thomas Davis. Second Edition. 217 Engrav- 
ings. 501 pp. 8vo $5.00, 

EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and 
Practical : 
With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice. 
By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . ^2.50 

EDWARDS. — 600 Examination Questions and Answers; 

For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob- 
tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book 
form, gilt edge ........ i?i-5o 

POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design : 

Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of 
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the Litest 
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing 
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac- 
ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt, Head 
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of 
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over looo illustrations. 293 
pages. 4to. $5-00 

POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: 
With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 
4to ^3.00 

RICH. — Artistic Horse- Shoeing : 

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of 
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different 
Diseases of the Foot, and fur the Correction of Faulty Action in 
Trotters. By George E- Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. 
l2mo ^i.oo 

RICH ARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : 

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Diflerent Times by Skilled 
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," 
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the 
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. 
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. 
Vol. I. 2IO Illustrations. 224 pp. i2mo. . . . j^l.oo 

Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. 12010, , , ^1,00 



32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: 

Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Brancheir 
which have aj^peared from time to time in the columns pf " The 
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. 
Richardson. 174 illustrations. ..... ^i.oo 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen : 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . ;^2.oo 

ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. ^2.00 

ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book: 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. l8mo., tuck . ^3.00 

ROSE. — Modern Steam- Engines: 

An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. 
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Stean^- 
Engines: Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the 
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. 4to., 320 pages . . ^6.00 

HOSE.— Steam Boilers: 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Ins]iectors; and 
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... ^2.^0 

SCHRIBER.— The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: 
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, 
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, 
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing, 
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- 
trations. 177 pp. l2mo. ...... ^I.oa 

VAN CLEVE. — The English and American Mechanic : 

Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, 
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- 
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. I2.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE. — Guide for the Scientific Examination of 
the Soil : 
By Dr. Fkux Wahn.schaffe. Translated from the German by 
William T. Brannt. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vu. 
(In preparation.^ 



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